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BULLETIN  NO.  33. 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

EXPERIMENT  STATION 

...OF... 

THE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  OF  flONTANA, 


SUGAR  BEETS  IN  MONTANA, 

THE  CROP  OF  1901. 


SUGAR  BEET  SERIES  NO.  2. 


BOZEn,AN,  MONTANA,  JANUARY  1902. 


1903. 

The  Avant  Courier  Publishing  Co., 
Bozeman , ' Mo  ntana. 


riontana  Agricultural  Experirhent  Station, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor 

James  Donovan,  Attorney  General 

W.  W.  Welch,  Siipt.  of  Publie  Instruetion 

J.  M.  Hamilton 

J.  P.  Hendricks 

N.  W.  McConnell 

O.  F.  Goddard 

O.  P/Chisholm ! 

J.'G.  McKay 

G.  T.  Paul ; 

N.  B.  Holter 


|ex-officio Helena 

.Missoula 

Butte 

Helena 

Billings 

Bozeman 

Hamilton 

Dillon 

Helena 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President Bozeman 

John  M.  Robinson,  Vice  President Bozeman 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary  and  Treasurer Bozeman 

Joseph  Kountz Bozeman 

E.  B.  Lamme Bozeman 


' STATION  STAFF. 

Samuel  Fortier,  Ma.  E Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S Chemist 

Robt.  S.  Shaw,  B.  S.  A Agriculturalist 

J.  W.  Blankinship.,  Ph.  D...., Botanist 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc Entomolgist 


Post  Office,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 

All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be 
addressed  to  the  Director, 

Montana  Experiment  Station, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 


The  Bulletins  ot  the  Experiment  Station  are  sent  free  to  all 
residents  of  this  state  upon  request. 


Montana  Experiment  Station. 

Bulletin  No.  33  - - - - - - January,  1902. 


SUGAR  BEETS  IN  MONTANA. 


CROP  OF  1901. 

F.  W.  TRAPHAGEN. 

The  results  of  sugar  beet  culture  in  Montana  for  the  past  season 
have  been  most  gratifying,  and  we  feel  renewed  confidence  in  the 
opinion  expressed  in  Bulletin  No.  19,  that  ‘'Montana  conditions  are' 
favorable  to  the  production  of  sugar  beets  of  high  sugar  content  and 
standard  purity.” 

Great  interest  has  been  taken  in  the  sugar  beet  work  this  year, 
because,  for  the  first  time,  the  question  of  our  ability  to  meet  the 
commercial  conditions  of  this  crop,  has  been  taken  up  seriously  by 
capitalists.  Because  of  this,  our  work  has  been  supplemented  in 
two  important  agricultural  valleys  by  others,  and,  on  account  of 
this  additional  interest,  more  attention  has  been  given  to  careful 
culture.  .This  attention  is  shown  in  the  results,  which,  in  general, 
are  far  better  than  in  any  preceding  year. 

On  the  Bitter  Root  Stock  Farm  in  particular,  a series  of  very 
careful  tests  were  conducted,  and  the  results,  in  richness,  purity  and 
yield,  were  such  as  to  full}^  satisfy  the  most  exacting.  These  tests 
were  conducted  by  Mr.  Thomas  Loynd,  an  experienced  sugar  beet 
Culturist,  from  Utah,  and  were  made  on  different  varieties  of  soil, 
including  the  poorer  as  well  as  the  richer.  ,A  perusal  of  the  tables 
containing  the  results  of  these  tests  will  show  very  striking  figures. 

Sugar  beets  in  the  past  have  received  very  scant  attention  at 
the  hands  of  those  who  have  planted  them  in  this  state.  Put  in  as 
an  accommodation  to  the  Experiment  Station,  they  have  been  at- 
tended to  after  every  other  interest  has  been  considered.  When 
irrigated,  if  at  all,  they  received  water  not  when  they  most  needed 
it,  but  when  most  convenient  to  the  farmer.  The  same  is  true  of 
cultivation,  and  this  crop,  which  responds  so  readily  to  painstaking 


4 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


care,  has  been  left  to  grow  almost  unattended.  In  spite  of  this,  the 
results  have  been  very  pleasing.  Montana  seems  to  be  the  natural 
habitat  of  root  crops,  and  the  difficulty  is  to  keep  down  the  growth^ 
and  prevent  the  formation  of  too  large  roots. 

Even  at  the  Experiment  Station  where  the  results  have  been 
such,  that  the  culture  would  always  have  been  profitable,  both  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  producer  and  of  the  manufacturer,  the  sugar 
beets  have  been  part  of  a rotation,  in  which  they  have  been  far  from 
being  the  favored  crop. 

In  the  valley  of  Clark’s  Eork  of  the  Yellowstone  River,  the 
first  experimental  work  was  carried  on  the  past  year,  with  an  out- 
come that  would  indicate  this  valley  as  an  ideal  locality  for  the 
establishment  of  a factory.  In  the  three  localities  just  mentioned,, 
the  experiments  have  been  carried  on  in  a sufficiently  large  scale^ 
to  demonstrate  the  question  of  profitable  sugar  beet  culture  to  any 
who  make  a careful  study  of  the  conditions  and  results. 

The  yield,  sugar  content,  and  purity,  can  be  kept  far  above  the 
standards  adopted  as  the  minimum  values,  by  sugar  beet  experts,, 
as  demonstrated  by  the  past  season’s  work,  which  can  be  improved 
upon  as  cultural  conditions  are  bettered.  Euel  is  easily  obtainable 
and  cheap,  water  is  pure  and  abundant,  limestone  of  great  purity 
is  available  and  land  sufficient  to  produce  the  crop,  and  at  the  same 
time  sustain  a logical  three  year’s  rotation,  is  at  hand  in  each  of 
these  sections. 

No  doubt  many  other  sections  of  the  state  could  show  just  as 
good  figures,  but,  unfortunately,  the  experiments  have  been  lacking 
in  magnitude  sufficient  to  satisfy  the  intending  investor.  Many 
results  have  been  obtained  by  farmers  m different  portions  of  the 
state,  which  are  entirely  satisfactory  in  themselves,  but,  which,  in 
order  to  possess  their  full  value,  must  be  supplemented  by  experi- 
ments by  their  neighbors. 

A factory  will  not  be  established  anywhere  where  there  is  not 
at  least  fifteen  thousand  acres  of  land  within  easy  reach  of  the 
factory,  either  by  rail  or  country  road,  which  will  contribute  the 
beet  crop  to  the  factory.  This  amount  of  land  planted  to  a three 
year  rotation  of  clover,  grain  and  beets,  would  maintain  a factorv 
of  fair  size,  but,  a smaller  area  of  available  land  would  hardly  be 
considered. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


5 


It  is  the  custom  of  the  beet  sugar  companies  to  pay  for  the 
railroad  haul,  and  where  the  beets  are  siloed,  to  await  their  call, 
they  pay  twenty  cents  additional  per  ton.  The  method  of  siloing 
in  use  is  very  simple,  consisting  only  in  making  a trench  more  or 
less  deep,  and  as  wide  as  necessity  demands,  and,  after  filling  with 
beets,  covering  over  with  the  loose  soil  previously  removed. 

The  consumption  of  sugar  in  Montana  is  sufficient  to  use  up  all 
the  product  of  at  least  one  large  factory  and  the  protection  afforded 
by  the  long  freight  haul,  with  attendant  high  tariffs,  together  with 
the  excellent  crop  returns,  will  certainly  prove  incentives,  sooner 
or  later,  to  the  establishment  of  factories  within  our  borders. 

Feeding  Beets  and  Pulp. 

Until  the  product  of  the  sugar  beet  fields  is  absorbed  by  beet 
sogr.r  factories,  and  while  the  experimental  , a work,  necessary  to 
prove  the  claims  of  various  localities,  is  going  on j the  roots  can  be 
v*ery  profitably  fed  to  stock,  and  prove  a very  welcome  addition  to 
the  ordinary  dry  ration,  as  well  as  yielding  a distinct  gain  in  flesh, 
equivalent  to  a high  money  return  for  the  beets  fed. 

The  striking  results  obtained  at  the  Montana  Experiment 
Station  in  swine  feeding  experiments,  conducted  by  Prof.  Shaw, 
which  are  described  in  Bulletin  No.  27,  to  which  readers  of  this 
Bulletin  are  referred,  will  show  the  value  of  beets  as  food. 

This  subject  has  been  previously  taken  up  in  Bulletin  No.  19, 
and  work  subsequent  to  that  publication,  shows  that  as  a succulent 
addition  to  the  usual  food,  the  beet  is  valuable  and  acceptable. 
This  is  particularly  true  in  our  own  state,  where  succulent  foods 
are  so  scarce,  especially  in  winter. 

Climate. 

The  old  saying  “that  the  proof  of  the  pudding  is  in  the  eating’^ 
applies  particularly  to  the  discussion  of  the  Montana  climate  in 
reference  to  sugar  beet  culture.  When ‘we  qan  get  yields  of  25.6 
tons  per  acre,  of  beets  of  19.38  per  cent  sugar  content,  and  86.4  per 
cent  purity,  as  was  done  in  one  specially  favored  portion  of  the 
Bitter  Root  Stock  Farm,  and  when  almost  every  valley  in  the  state 
produces  crops  of  beets  above  the  general  commercial  average,  who 
'vill  say  the  Montana  climate  is  not  adapted  to  sugar  beets? 


6 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Experiment  Station — Variety  Tests.  . 


Lab’v  No 

Av.  Wt.  Oz 

Sugar  in  juice... 

Sugar  in  beet ... 

Puritv  Coef. 

Date  1901 

1805 

Miscellaneous  

20.00 

!i6.8 

I15.96l84.44 

Sept.  19 

1831 

Kleinwanzlebener,  5770 

24.8  ] 

15-8  ! 

15-3  1 

81.00 

Sept.  28 

1832 

Utah  Seed 

254 

I16.5 

1S-67I85-5 

Sept.  28 

Zehringen,  3942 

16.8 

15.6 

14.82 

88.2 

Sept.  28 

1834 

B ramie,  2885 

23.00 

16.1 

15-19 

83-3 

Sept.  28 

1835 

Kleinwanzlebener,  Dippe,  3944.. 

19.6 

16.3 

15. 58182.02 

Sept.  28 

1836 

Kleinwanzlebener,  Russia,  3943. 

234 

15.00 

14-25 

78.00 

Sept.  28 

1837 

Vilmorin 

20.2 

I1S.8 

15.01 

79-7 

Sept.  28' 

1838 

Unknown  Variety 

20.4 

16.6 

15-77 

85-5 

Sept.  28 

1842 

Kleinwanzlebener,  5770 

20.5 

16.1 

15-29 

76.3 

Oct.  5 

1843 

Utah  Seed 

21.00 

17.9 

17.00 

87-5 

Oct.  5 

1844 

Zehringen,  3942 

22.00 

15-9 

15.10 

74-6 

Oct.  5 

1845 

Braune,  2885 

20.00 

16.71 

82.3 

Oct.  5 

1846 

Kleinwanzlebener,  Dippe,  3944.  . 

19.00 

19-5 

18.52 

88.6 

!Oct.  5 

1847 

Kleinwanzlebener,  Russia,  3943. 

18.00 

17.6 

16.72 

186.1 

Oct.  5 

1848 

Vilmorin 

26.5 

14.00 

13-3  i 

72.9 

Oct.  5 

1869 

Kleinwanzlebener,  5770 

25-5 

17.0 

16.15! 

86.00 

Oct.  12. 

1870 

Utah  

17.00 

18.5 

17-57- 

184-9 

Oct.  12. 

1871 

Zehringen,  3942 

15-5  ! 

18.3  ! 

17-38183.3 

Oct.  12 

1872 

Braune,  2885 

16.5 

18.5 

17-57 

186.3 

Oct.  12 

1873 

Kleinzwanzlebener,  Dippe,  3944. 

14.00 

19.1 

18.14 

90-5 

Oct.  12 

1874 

Kleinwanzlebener,  Russia,  3943. 

14.5 

18.6 

17-671 

!88.5 

Oct.  12 

187s 

Vilmorin  

17.00 

19.2 

18.24 

87.6 

Oct.  12 

1882 

Kleinwanzlebener,  S770 

15.00 

I18.4 

17.48 

82.9 

Oct.  19 

1883  Utah  

18.00 

19-3 

18.33I86.1 

Oct.  19 

1884 

Zehringen,  3942 

14.66 

20.00 

19.00 

87.oo|Oct.  19 

1885 

Braune,  2885 

16.66  19.9 

18.9 

87.6  ! 

Oct.  19 

1886 

Kleinzwanzlebener,  Dippe,  3944. 

18.66I 

18.3 

17-381 

85-9 

|Oct.  19 

1887 

Kleinwanzlebener,  Russia,  3943. 

14.66 

18.2 

17.29! 

86.6 

Oct.  19 

1888 

V'ilmorin  

17.00 

17-9  1 

17.00! 

84.00 

Oct.  i'>- 

1966 

Kleinwanzlebener,  5770 

20.8 

17.901 

17.00! 

81.8 

Oct.  26 

1967 

Utah  ! 

174  ! 

20.10 

19.05! 

85.00 

Oct.  26 

i968!Zehringen,  3942 

20.00 

19.701 18.76! 

85-5 

Oct.  26 

1969 

Braune,  2885 

21.00  19.70! 

18.741 

87.00, 

Oct.  26 

1970 

Kleinwanzlebener,  Dippe,  3944... 

23-00! 

19-501 

18.46  88.oo| 

Oct.  26 

1971 

Kleinwanzlebener,  Russia,  3943. 

19.00 

19-301 

18.35I87-5 1 

Oct.  26 

1972 

Vilmorin  

22.00! 

i7-97i 

17.07! 

86.00 

Oct.  2^^ 

MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


7. 


Averages  of  all  Tests. — Experiment  Station. 


Kleinwanzlebener,  5770 

Utah  

Zehringen,  3942 

Braune,  2885 

Kleinwanzlebener,  Dippe,  3944.  .. 
Kleinwanzlebener,  Russia,  3943.. 

Vilmorin  

General  Average 


21.32 

19.76 

17.8 

1943 

18.85 

17.91 

20.5 

19-37 


17.04 

18.44 

17.91 

18.38 

i8-53 

17-75 

17-13 

17.88 


16.31 

17-S1 

17.01 
17.42 
17.61 
16.85 
16.27 
16. 


98  84 


81.6 

85.8 

83-7 

85-3 

87.00 

85-3 

84.00 

9 


13-5 

11.7 

1145 

10.5 

10.4 

9-25 

9-5 

10.9 


4403 

4007 

3895 

3658 

3662 

3117 

3091 

3690 


Averages  for  Successive  Dates. — Experiment  Station. 


Date  1901. 

Av.  weight 

Per  cent  sugar 
in  juice 

Per  cent  sugar 
in  beet 

Per  cent 
purity 

September  28 

21.7 

OZ. 

15-96 

15.20 

82.90 

October  5 

21.0 

oz. 

16.96 

16.13 

81.19 

October  12 

17.14 

OZ. 

18.46 

17-53 

86.73 

October  19 

16.38 

oz. 

18.86 

17.92 

85-73 

October  26 

20.45 

oz. 

19.18 

18.25 

85-83 

8 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


r Clark’s  Fork  Valley. — Bridger  and  Gebo. 

The  * indicates  that  the  P.  O.  address  is  Gebo ; the  address  of  all 
others  is  Bridger. 


Lab’y  No 

Name. 

Av.  weight  in 
ounces 

Sugar  in  juice... 

Sugar  in  beet... 

Purity  Coef. 

Tons  beets  per 
acre 

Lbs.  sugar  per 
acre...  

1850 

P.  R.  Miller  * 

8.8 

I7.I 

16.22 

79-9 

6.5 

2108 

1854 

C.  F.  Sexton 

29.00 

15-9 

15.10 

80.3 

25-00 

7552 

1881 

A.  E.  Parker 

31-5 

14.3 

13-58 

69.4 

9.00 

2444 

1889 

William  Barclay 

14.7 

16.2 

15-39 

78.2 

12.00 

3695 

1891 

James  Barclay 

1943 

21.3 

20.23 

82.88 

20.00 

8092 

1903 

C.  M.  Larkin 

10.8 

16.88 

16.00 

80.00 

1907 

W.  H.  Bostic 

24.9 

19-5 

18.52 

78.3 

20.00 

7408 

1934 

C.  H.  Bostic 

94 

15-5 

14.72 

67.1 

1935 

W.  F.  Gibson 

35-5 

18.00 

I7.I 

74-4 

24.00 

8208 

1936 

Lucy  H.  Smith 

28.00 

20.1 

19.09 

83-7 

20.00 

7636 

1937 

Hugh  Morrow 

26.5 

19.7 

18.71 

74-5 

15.00 

5613 

1938 

R.  B.  Teesdale 

18.8 

17.86 

8.5-4 

25.00 

8930 

1939 

E.  T.  Bostic 

28.5 

21.9 

20.8 

88.3 

1940 

J.  R.  Stevens 

55-00 

14.81 

14.06 

77-4 

15.00 

4218 

1941 

S.  H.  Mendenhall 

14.8 

18.II 

17.2 

83.8 

20.00 

6880 

1942 

Thomas  Barnett 

20.8  1 

16.5 

15-67 

80.00 

12.00 

3760 

1943 

A.  G.  Duffield 

32.00 

17.8 

16.9 

83.00 

25.00 

8450 

1944 

L.  G.  Preno 

24.5 

17.9 

17.00 

79.6 

20.00 

6800 

I94.S 

F.  0.  Jennings 

31.00 

17.6 

16.7 

75.00 

1946 

B.  F.  Bayler 

33-00 

22.7 

21.56 

85-3 

1947 

Richard  Barrows 

25-5 

18.6 

17.67 

82.00 

20.00 

7068 

1952 

1.  A.  Goff  * 

1 1.6 

134 

12.73 

74-44 

12.00 

3055 

1953 

F.  E.  Stevens 

21.00 

16.00 

15.20 

82.05 

25-00 

7600 

1954 

Frank  Hiser 

9-2 

19-3 

18.33 

84.65 

15.00 

5499 

1955 

E,  D.  Lovegreen.. 

14-33 

16.3 

15.48 

77-94 

15.00 

4644 

1956  E.  T.  Preuitt 

18.66 

I9.I 

18.14 

86.80 

20.00 

725<? 

1957  W.A.  Cowan  * 

21.00 

16.8 

15.96 

80.00 

1958  E.  Cowan 

154 

19.8 

18.81 

90.00 

20.00 

7524 

1959  N.  Webber 

18.6 

18.7 

17.76 

86.12 

1960IC.  M.  Laughery 

17-5 

19.9 

18.90 

88.83 

20.00 

7560 

1961 

T.  E.  Stearns 

18.66 

14-7 

13.96 

76.96 

1950!  R.  A.  Duncan  (4) 

25.00 

17.7 

16.8 

80.00 

(4)  P.  O.  Address  is  Rockvale. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


9 


Bitter  Root  Stock  Farm. — Hamilton,  Mont. 


, 

Av.  weight 

ounces 

Sugar  in  juice... 

Sugar  in  beet... 

Purity  Coef. 

1 

Tons  per  acre... 

Lbs  sugar  per 

acre 

1855  Hamilton  Ranch,  No.  i 

17.8  1 

20.1 

19.09 

87.3 

18.9 

7216 

1856  Hamilton  Ranch,  No.  2 

16.6 

19-3 

18.33 

86.9 

13.6 

4985 

i857|Hamilton  Ranch,  No.  3 

15-2 

20.1 

19.9 

82.4 

22.00 

8756 

1858I  Hamilton  Ranch,  No.  4 

8.8 

21. 1 

20.04 

87.5 

12.7 

5090 

1859I Gilchrist  Ranch,  No.  i 

1 1 .00 

20.6 

19-57 

88.4 

18.4 

7201 

l86o|  Gilchrist  Ranch,  No.' 2 | 

1 1.6 

22.00 

20.9 

91.2 

i86i|Prendergast  Ranch,  No.  i 

11.8 

19.8 

18.81 

87.6 

20.00 

7524 

i862|Prenclergast  Ranch,  No.  2 

13.6 

22.1 

20.99 

92.00 

18.00 

7556 

1863  Lower  Ward  Ranch,  No.i 

13.00 

21. 1 

20.04 

90.6 

18.3 

7334 

1864  Lower  Ward  Ranch,  No.  2 

12.4 

20.8 

19.76 

89.2 

14.00 

5532 

i865|Upper  Ward  Ranch,  No.  i 

134 

20.3 

19.28 

87-5 

12.00 

4627 

1866  Ravalli  Ranch 

13.00 

20.2 

19.19 

90.00 

14.6 

5603 

1867I  Corvallis  Ranch 

15.6 

20.4 

19.38 

86.4 

25.6  19922 

Missoula  County. 


Name. 

Av.  Weight 
in  ounces.. 

Sugar  in 
iuice 

Sugar  in 
beet 

Purity  Coef 

Tons  beets 

per  acre ... 

Lbs.  sugar 
per  acre... 

1876! 

18771 

W.  H.  Daykin,  Missoula  . 

Kleinwanzlebener  

Vilmorin  

17-5 

16.00 

17-3 

17.9 

16.43 

17.00 

77-5 

81.3 

16.5 

5610 

1878! 

Utah  . 

21.5 

17.00 

16.15 

84.9 

19.00 

6137 

1924I 

Chas.  E.  Coleman,  Missoula. 

Kleinwanzlebener  . . * 

32.66 

16.5 

15-671 

1 76.03 

12.4 

3886 

19251 

Vilmorin  

19-5 

19.7 

18.71I 

86.4 

II-5 

4303 

1932 

Henry  Buckhouse,  Missoula..  . 

10.4 

15-5 

14.72! 

85.1 

9.00 

2650 

T893 

C.  C.  Willis,  Plains 

Kleinwanzlebener 

10.8 

174 

1 

16.53187.7 

1 1. 00 

3636 

1894I 

Vilmorin 

13.00 

18.1 

I7.IQ 

I88.3 

12.5 

4297 

1 895 1 

LTah 

9.00 

16.6 

15-77 

181.7 

12.00 

3784 

10 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Gallatin  Valley. 


Lab’y  No.... 

Name. 

Av.  weight 

in  ounees.. 

Sugar  in 
juice 

Sugar  in 
beet 

Purity  Coef 

Tons  beets 

per  acre... 

Lbs  sugar 
per  acre ... 

1879 

1919 

John  A.  Moore,  Belgrade 

W.  A.  Caldwell,  Belgrade 

33-5‘ 

18.6 

12.00 

17.00 

11.40 

16.15 

75.00 

80.5 

27.OD 

8721 

1930 

A.  A.  Spaulding,  Bozeman. . . . 

Kleinwanzlebener  

17.66 

16.5 

15-67 

80.5 

30.00 

9402 

1931 

Vilmorin  

25.66 

154 

14-63 

78.5 

36.00 

1053^ 

1933 

M.  M.  Ferguson,  Bozeman.  . . . 

Kleinwanzlebener  

19.00 

16.4 

15-58 

80.00 

Cascade  County. 


fa 

cr 

Z 

0 

Name. 

Av.  weight 
in  ounces 

Sugar  in 
juice ' 

Sugar  in 
beet 

Purity  Coef 

Tons  beets 

per  acre ... 

Lbs  sugar 
per  acre... 

Paris  Gibson,  Great  Falls 

1 

1839 

Utah  

44.00 

13-5 

[12.82 

65.00 

1840 

Kleinwanzlebener  

30.00 

II.6  1 

I'l.OO 

63.00] 

1841 

Vilmorin  

48.00 

15-4 

1 14-63 

70.00 

. 

1892 

C.  H.  Campbell,  Great  Falls.  . . 

12.00 

17-5 

[16.62 

80.00 

1906 

John  H.  C.  Dale,  Great  Falls. . . 

33-00 

17.00 

I16.15 

86.28 

25.00 

8075 

Daniel  Payne,  Monarch 

i 

1899 

Utah  

II.8 

16.8  1 

15.96 

82.00 

1900 

Kleinwanzlebener  

9.66 

19.2 

18.24 

80.3 

1901 

Vilmorin  

7-7 

19.2 

18.24  78.68 

MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


II 


Yellowstone  County. 


cr 

Z 

p 

Name. 

Av.  weight 

in  ounces.. 

1 

Sugar  in 

juice 

Sugar  in 
beet 

0 

0 

n 

Tons  beets 
per  acre ... 

1 Lbs  sugar 

per  acre... 

1785 

Wm.  Birely,  Billings 

41.00 

4.00 

3-8 

41.00 

1786 

Wm.  Birely,  Billings 

38.00 

! 54 

5-13 

56.2 

1902 

I.  D.  O'Donnell,  Billings 

38.00 

13.02 

12.36 

70.00 

1965 

I.  D.  O'Donnell,  Billings 

40.3 

12.27 

11.65 

66.00 

1929 

C.  D.  Hatch,  Laurel 

21.00 

18.1 

17.2 

80.00 

Park  County. 


p 

cr 

vf  1 

0 

1 • 

1 Name. 

Av.  weight 
in  ounces 

Sugar  in 
juice 

Sugar  in 
beet 

Purity  Coef 

Tons  beets 

per  acre ... 

-c  0- 

n>  Vi. 

1 = 

Pi 

: 

1920 

1921 

1922 
1897 
1948! 
I962I 

L.  M.  Jones,  Myersburg 

Kleinwanzlebener  

Vilmorin  

Utah  

Gus  Nelson,  Livingston 

Andrew  Lyall,  Livingston .... 
George  J.  Allen,  Livingston . . . 

17-50 

18.00 

32.00 
23.66 

12.5 

15-5 

17.4 
16.00 

14.5 

16.9 

174 

18.5 

16.53 

IS.20 

13-77 

16.05 

16.53 

17-57 

77.6 

70.17 

69.04 
78.00 
62.14 

81.5 

20.00 

21.00 

47-  * 
20.5 

6612 

6384 

12944 

6498 

* Excluded  from  average. 


Flathead  County. 


P 

C7 

0 

Name. 

Av.  weight 
in  ounces 

1 Sugar  in 

juice 

i 

Sugar  in 
licet 

1 Puritv  coef 

1 

Tons  beets 

per  aere ... 

Lbs  sugar 
per  aere ... 

1896 

Theodore  Koenig,  Kalispell . . . 

14.00 

21.2 

20.14 

81.7 

! 

1904 

Me.  C.  Winiger,  Kalispell 

14.00 

17-3 

16.43 

82.38 

10.00 

3286 

1951 

iC.  E.  Pettit,  Kalispell 

25-5 

19.7 

18.64 

83-4 

19.00 

7083 

1 

T.  S.  Proud,  Kalispell 

1926, 

1 Utah  

14.2 

17-4 

16.53 

80.55 

10.00 

3306 

1927I 

Vilmorin  

21.2 

17.7 

16.8 

78.00 

14.00 

4704 

1928 

Kleinwanzlebener  

9.8 

20.2 

19.19 

87.4 

II. 00 

4222 

12 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Miscellaneous. 


r 

m 

p 

D* 

5*:^ 

c 

c (x; 

g'w 

c 

2. 

^ § 

tj  o' 
n o> 

Name. 

§ i 

p 

rt-  n 

n (fi 

03  0“ 

•t  o> 
p P 

z 

0 

0 

ft  ^ 

tfi 

: 5' 

: 5' 

0 

0 

n 

►*> 

n 2. 

p S" 

0 9Q 

rt  i-t 

i88o|W.  N.  Aylesworth,  Deer  Lodge 

'32.00 

16.00 

15-2 

88.00 

1852 

James  Fullerton,  Red  Lodge... 

I29.2 

13-9 

13.2 

66.5 

16.00 

4224 

1890 

D.  McNeil,  Boulder 

32.00 

14.5 

1377 

80.1 

1898 

John  Flaherty,  Cold  Springs.  . 

14.00 

12.6 

11.87 

85-9 

1853 

J.  S.  Crowder,  Lewistown . . . . 

17.00 

154 

14.63 

71.6 

23.00 

7552 

1923 

R.  Parkhurst,  Victoi; 

18.00 

14.6 

13-97 

74-4 

1982 

Sidney  Ward,  Hamilton 

ii5-6 

21.00 

19-95 

90.5 

1868 

W.  M.  Wooldridge,  Hinsdale. . 

14.00 

157 

14.91 

80.5 

20.00 

5964 

1949 

W.  M.  Wooldridge,  Hinsdale. . 

24.8 

147 

13.96 

84.9 

1963 

Arthur  Millard,  Miles  City.  . . . 

16.00 

18.4 

17.48 

78.01 

1851 

John  Bamber,  Glendive 

18.6 

14.00 

^3-3 

76.5 

iM 

Geo.  W.  Dana,  Deer  Lodge.  . . . 

11.8 

15-3 

14-53 

7S-7 

General  Variety  Tests. 

(Exclusive  of  the  Experiment  Farm,  Bitter  Root  Stock  Farm,  and 
Clark’s  Fork  Valley.) 


Variety. 

Av.  weight 

in  ounces. 

Sugar 

in  juice. 

Per  cent  of 
sugar 
in  beets. 

Per  cent  of 

purity. 

Kleinwanzlebener  

18.4 

21.4 

21.5 

17.00 
16.85 

16.00 

16.15 

16.00 

81.3 

79-2 

75-99 

Vilmorin  

Utah  

15.20 

MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


13 


LOCALITY  AVERAGES. 


Locality. 

Av,  weight 

in  ounces 

Sugar  in 

in  juice 

Sugar  in 
beet 

Purity  Coef 

Tons  beets 
per  acre  . . . 

Lbs.  sugar 

per  ac  re... 

Cascade  County  (i)  . . . . ; 

24^5 

16.25 

15-4 

75-4 

25.00 

8075 

Yellowstone  County 

3.S-66 

10.56 

10.00 

62.6 

Flathead  Count}^ 

16.45 

18.9 

17-95 

82.24 

12.8 

4520 

Valley  County  (i) 

19.40 

15-2 

114-43 

82.7 

20.00 

5968 

Park  County  (2) 

19*5 

16.66 

15-94 

73-07 

20.5 

6498 

Custer  County  (i) 

16.00 

18.4 

17-5 

78.00 

Dawson  County  (i) 

18.6 

14.00 

13-3 

76.5 

Powell  County 

21.9 

15.6 

14.86 

81.8 

Fergus  County 

17.00 

15-4 

14.63 

71.6 

23.00 

7552 

Jefferson  County 

23.00 

13-50 

12.82 

83.00 

Carbon  County  (3) 

29.2 

13-9 

13.2 

66.5 

16.00 

4244 

Missoula  County 

16.7 

17-3 

1 6.46 1 83. 00 

13.00 

4288 

Ravalli  County  (4) 

16.8 

17.8 

16.96 

I82.45 

Gallatin  County  (5) 

22.88 

15-46 

14.68  78.9 

31.00 

9332 

Bitter  Root  Stock  Farm 

13-37 

20.60 

19.64  87.46 

16.5 

6771 

Experiment  Farm 

Clark’s  Fork  Valley 

19-37 

17.88 

16.98  84.9 

10.9 

3690 

22.7 

1 1 7.84 

16.97 

180.5 

1 1 8.00 

6174 

(1) .  One  lot  only. 

(2) .  One  locality  only. 

(3) .  Excluding  Clark’s  Fork  Valley. 

(4) .  5^xcluding  Bitter  Root  Stock  Farm. 

(5) .  Excluding  Experiment  Farm. 


14  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

\ 

COMPARISON  OF  YIELDS  IN  MONTANA  AND  ELSE- 
WHERE. 


Average  Montana  Results  in  igoi. 


Beets 

Per  cent 

Lbs. 

Localit3’-. 

per  acre 

sugar  in 

sugar 

Tons 

the  beets 

per  acre 

Bitter  Root  Stock  Farm 

16.5 

19.64 

6771 

Experiment  Farm 

10.9 

16.98 

3690 

Clark’s  Fork  Valiev 

18.00 

16.97 

6174 

Cascade  County  fa).' 

25.00 

1540 

8075 

Flathead  County 

12.8 

17*95 

4520 

Valley  County  (a) 

20.00 

14*43 

5964 

Park  County 

20.5 

15.90 

6498 

Fergus  County 

23.00 

14*63 

7552 

Carbon  County  (b)  . 

16.00 

13.20 

4244 

Missoula  County | 

13.00 

! 16.46 

4288 

Gallatin  County  (c) 

! 31-00 

14.68 

9332 

(a) .  One  lot  only. 

(b) .  Excluding  Clark’s  Eork  Valley. 

(c) .  Excluding  Experiment  Station. 


Germany. 


Years. 

No.  of 

factories. 

Acreage. 

Tons  beets 

per  acre. 

Per  cent 
sugar 
in  beets. 

Lbs.  sugar 

per  acre. 

1890-1891  

406 

825,825 

13^03“" 

l’2.09 

3150 

1891-1892  

403 

861,583 

II.4I 

12.06 

2752 

1892-1893  

401 

869,829 

I 1.29 

11.94 

2696 

1893-1894  

405 

945.995 

II. 12 

12.34 

2744 

1894-1895  

405 

1,090,801 

13*27 

12.15 

3225 

1895-1896  

397 

930.749 

12.55 

13*11 

3290 

1896-1897  

399 

1,049,881 

13*07 

12.66 

33<'*9 

1897-1898  

402 

1,079,810 

8.62 

12.79 

2205 

1898-1899  

401 

1. 1 54.229 

11.52 

13*15 

3029 

1899-1900 

399 

1. 154.355 

11.79 

14.4 

3395 

I9OO-I9OI  

395 

1.095,790 

12.06 

14.91 

3596 

MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


15 


COMPARISON  OF  YIELDS  IN  MONTANA  AND  ELSE- 
WHERE. 


France. 


Years. 

No.  of 

factories. 

Acreage. 

Tons  beets 

per  acre. 

Per  cent 
sugar 
in  beets. 

Lbs  sugar 

per  acre. 

1890-1891  

377 

547.574 

II-3 

10.7 

2418 

1891-1892  

370 

550,786 

10.16 

II.6 

2357 

1892-1893  

368 

537,690 

9-77 

. 10.9 

2030 

1893-1894  

370 

543,420 

9.27 

II-5 

2132 

1894-1895  

367 

596,803 

12.21 

10.15 

2478 

1895-1896  

356 

505,851 

10.7 

12.7 

2558 

1896-1897  

358 

608.370 

11-37 

10.8 

2456 

1897-1898 

344 

564,572 

II. 21 

12.9 

2892 

1898-1899  

344 

590,347 

10.49 

13-34 

2807 

•1899-1900  

399 

626,480 

11.81 

12.45 

2941 

I9OO-T9OI  

342 

685,391 

10.79 

15.01 

3239 

A careful  scrutiny  of  these  tables  shows  the  steady  increase  in 
sugar  per  acre  in  Germany  and  France,  under  constantly  improving 
methods  of  cultivation.  But  even  with  the  extreme  care  in  culture 
and  the  constant  application  of  fertilizers,  the  results  are  far  below 
those  obtained  in  Montana,  in  every  locality  in  which  the  experi- 
mental work  has  been  carried  on.  Certainly  in  some  of  these 
localities  we  have  good  reason  to  hope  for  the  location  of  a beet  sugar 
factory  soon. 

For  an  explanation  of  terms  and  a general  discussion  of  the 
problem,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Bulletin  No.  19  of  this  Station, 
on  Sugar  Beets  in  Montana. 

.An  extended  Bulletin  at  this  time  has  been  considered  unnecces- 
sary,  for  it  is  believed  that  the  figures  given  “speak  for  themselves.'' 


I . 


JO 

V- 


s'-f 


UNIVERSITY  of  ILimO'S 

BULLETIN  No^  34.' 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

Experiment  Station, 

Agriciilttiral  College  of  Montana. 


FARMERS’  WEIRS. 

ONE  METHOD  OF  MEASURINO  WATER. 


^HIS  PUBLICATION  IS  THE  FIRST  OF  A SERIES  OF  FARMERS’ 
BULLETINS  ON  IRRIGATION  TOPICS. 


Bozeman,  Montana,  February  1902. 


REPUBLICAN, 
Bozeman,  Montana, 
1902. 


MONTANA  AORICULTURAL 


EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

BOZEMAN,  - MONTANA. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor,  ^ 

James  Donovan,  Attorney-General,  V Ex-Officio  Helena 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  ) 

J.  M.  Evans Missoula. 

C.  D.  Leonard Butte. 

N.  W.  McConnell Helena 

O.  F.  Goddard Billings  * 

O.  P.  Chisholm Bozeman 

J.  G.  McKay Hamilton 

G.  T.  Paul Dillon 

N.  B.  Holter Helena 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 

Walter  S.  Hartman,  President 

J.  M.  Robinson,  Vice-President 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary 

Joseph  Kountz 

E.  B.  Lamme 


Bozeman. 

Bozeman. 

Bozeman, 

Bozeman. 

Bozeman. 


STATION  STAFF. 


Samuel  Fortier,  Ma,  E 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S. . . . 

Robt.  S.  Shaw,  B.  S.  A 

J,  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc 


Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer 

Chemist 

Agriculturist. 

Botanist. 

Entomologist 


PostofRce,  Express  and  Freight  Station.  Bozeman, 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be  addressed  to  the 
Director. 


Montana  Experiment  Station, 


Bozeman,  Montana. 


NOTICE. — The  Bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to  any  citizen  of 
Montana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the  Station  for  that  purpose. 


r.tki. 


'-t. 


Libhary 

OF.THE 

UNIVERSITY  of  ILLINOIS. 


Montana  Experiment  Station 


BULLETIN  NO.  34-  = . = FEBRUARY  1902. 


FARMERS’  WEIRS. 


By  S.  Fortiee,  Director. 


INTRODUCTION. 

During  the  crop  growing  season  the  irrigators  of  Montana  divert 
large  volumes  of  water  from  the  natural  channels  of  the  stream.  When 
the  natural  supply  is  limited  to  the  flow  of  a small  creek  a few  farmers 
may  convey  the  entire  amount  through  small  ditches.  When  the 
stream  is  large  a score  or  more  of  canals,  each  supplying  water  to 
hundreds  of  farmers,  may  be  in  use.  In  all  cases  other  than  exclusive 
individual  ownership  the  equitable  division  of  irrigation  waters  is  a 
necessity. 

For  a long  period  after  the  first  settlement  of  the  fertile  valleys 
of  the  state,  water  was  abundant  and  little  attention  was  paid  to 
accurate  measurements,  or  a just  division.  • In  some  favored  sections 
these  conditions  still  prevail.  So  long  as  water  for  irrigation  is  cheap 
and  plentiful  western  farmers,  as  a rule,  do  not  trouble  their  minds 
about  either  irrigation  laws  or  suitable  'j;^measuring  devices.  Until 
March  12, 1885  Montana  had  no  legal  standard  for  measuring  water  in 
motion.  In  that  year  the  legislature  enacted  the  following: 

“Sec.  1262.  The  measurement  of  water  appropriated  under  this 
chapter  shall  be  conducted  in  the  following  manner:  A box  or  flume 
shall  be  constructed  with  a head  gate  placed  so  as  to  leave  an  opening 
of  six  inches  between  the  bottom  of  the  box  or  flume  and  the  lower 
edge  of  the  head  gate,  with  a slide  to  enter  at  one  side  of  and  of  suffi- 


4 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


cient  width  to  close  the  opening  left  by  the  head  gate  by  means  of 
which  the  dimensions  of  the  opening  are  to  be  adjusted.  The  box  or 
flume  shall  be  placed  level,  and  so  arranged  that  the  stream  in  passing 
through  the  aperture  is  not  obstructed  by  back  water,  or  an  eddy  below 
the  gate;  but  before  entering  the  opening  to  be  measured  the  stream 
shall  be  brought  to  an  eddy,  and  shall 'stand  three  inches  on  the  head 
gate  and  above  the  opening.  The  number  of  square  inches  contained 
in  the  opening  shall  be  the  measure  of  inches  of  water.” 

From  1885  to  1898  the  miners’  inch  box  just  described  was  the 
only  legal  method  of  measuring  irrigation  water  and  the  court  decrees 
o^  that  period  in  relation  to  all  water  right  suits  are  exi)resssed  in 
Montana  statutory  inches. 

This  box  which  was  designed  to  measure  miners’  inches  consisted 
generally  of  a short  flume  having  a bottom  and  two  sides.  At  the 
upper  end  a board  three  inches  wide  was  fastened  six  inches  above  the 
top  of  the  floor.  The  opening  formed  between  the  lower  edge  of  the 
board  and  the  floor  was  controlled  by  a slide,  or  gate,  whi:;h  moved 
horizontally.  When  the  box  was  in  place  the  irrigation  stream  to  be 
measured  was  turned  on  and  the  slide  so  adjusted  that  the  surface  of 
the  water  at  the  upper  end  of  the  box  was  level  with  the  top  of  the 
three  inch  board.  It  was  an  easy  way  of  measuring  water  under  a six 
inch  pressure,  for  the  distance  from  the  top  of  the  three  inch  board  to 
the  center  of  the  opening  was  intended  to  be  six  inches.  In  measuring 
a stream  if  the  slide  were  drawn  out  15  inches  at  the  time  the  water 
was  level  with  the  top  of  the  three  inch  board  the  opening  thus  made 
would  be  six  inches  high  and  15  inches  long  and  contain  90  square 
inches.  The  amount  of  water  flowing  through  this  opening  of  90 
square  inches  under  an  average  head  of  six  inches  would  represent  90 
miner’s  inches. 

This  method  of  measuring  water  has  been  severely  criticised  by 
the  engineers  of  the  state.  Their  objections  may  be  summarized  as 
as  follows: 

(1)  It  is  not  accurate. 

(2)  It  can  only  be  used  to  measure  small  streams. 

(3)  It  is  not  adapted  to  continuous  measurements. 

(4)  It  favors  the  large  consumer. 

(5)  The  flow  may  be  considerably  increased  or  diminished  by 
slight  changes. 


FAKMERS’  WEIRS. 


5 


(6)  Miners’  inches  vary  in  quantity  in  different  localities  of  the 
West. 

In  1898  the  state  legislature  established  a new  standard  unit, 
defined  the  Montana  miners’  inch  and  repealed  all  laws  in  conflict 
therewith.  This  enactment  is  still  in  force  and  the  standard  units 
with  others  will  be  described  under  the  next  heading. 


DEFINITIONS. 

Cubic  Foot  pee  Second.— The  standard  unit  for  flowing  water  in 
Montana  as  well  as  in  most  of  the  western  states  and  territories,  is  a 
solid,  or  cubic  foot  of  water,  moving  at  the  rate  of  a lineal  foot  in  one 
second  of  time.  Each  foot  in  length  of  a flume  one  foot  wide  and  one 
foot  high  inside  measurement  and  flowing  full  of  water  would  contain 
a solid  or  cubic  foot  of  water.  Now  if  this  flume  were  placed  on  such 
a grade  that  the  average  rate  of  flow  of  v/ater  witlfimit  would  be  just 
one  foot  of  distance  for  each  second  of  time  it  would  carry  a volume 
equal  to  the  standard  unit.  This  unit  is  often  abbreviated  into  the  two 
words  SECOND-FOOT.  ^ 

In  considering  this  stand&rd  for  flowing  water,'  irrigators  • shcmld 
not  conclude  that  a volume  of  a certain  definite  size  is  necessary.  « It 
will  be  apparent  to  all  that  a flume  six  inches  wide  and^  six  inches  high 
full  of  water  flowing  at  the  average  rate  of  4 feet  per  second  would 
also  deliver  one  cubic  .'foot  per  second.  In  general,  the  flow  of  any 
stream  may  be  obtained  by  multiplying  the  width  and  depth  of  :the 
water  channel  in  feet  by  the  average  rate  of  flowdn  feet.,  A flume,  for 
example,  which  is  six  feet  wide  inside  and  carries  water  to  a depth  of 
1-|  feet  w^ould  contain  6x1-^  or  9 square  feet  of  water  area.  Now,  if  it 
is  found  that  the  average  rate  of  flow  is  two  feet  per  second  the  total 
volume  is  2x9,  or  18  subic  feet  per  second.  In  the  case  of  a ditch  in 
earth  with  a curved  bottom  the  area  is  not  so  readily  found  but  the 
principle  involved  is  the  same.  - 

Montana  Miners’  Inch.— Like  the  bushel  measure  for  grain  the 
term  miners’  inch  is  likely  to  be  continued  long  after  that  method  of 
water  measurement  has  been  abandoned.  I^do  not  know  of  a single 
Montana  farmer  that  now  measures  his  grain  by  means  of  a bushel 
measure  and  yet  the  large  majority  indicate  their  yields  in  bushels 


M^//] 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


WE/R  BOX  Na/ 

To  Measure  from  /S  fo  -^O  Mtn€r,s  /nc/fe^ 


FAKMERS’  WEIRS. 


7 


Bill  of  Material  for  Weir  Box  No.  I. 


No.  of 
Pieces. 

Actnal 

Dimensions* 

B.  M. 

Feet 

Where 

Used. 

Remarks. 

4 

In.  In.  Ft.  In 

2 X 12  X 8 

64 

Lining  Sides. 

Lumber,  Rough. 

3 

2 X 12  X 8 

48 

Lining  Bottom. 

ii  a 

1 

2 X 10  X 8 

13>^ 

ii  ii 

ii  ii 

8 

2 X X 4 2 

22K 

Sills  and  Ties. 

“ 

8 

2 X 4 X 2 10 

15 

Posts. 

i i i i 

2 

2 X 12  X 4 2 

16% 

Aprons. 

a ii 

2 

2 X 12  X 3 13^ 

12% 

Weir  Board. 

Cl^r  Lumber  Surface. 

4 

lx  2x2 

IM 

Cleats,  sides. 

i i a 

2 

lx  2x3 

1 

Cleats,  bottom. 

ii  i i 

7 lbs.  20d  wire  nails. 
% lb.  6d  wire  nails. 


8 


MONTANA,  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


per  acre.  Scales  of  all  kinds  have  now  become  so  common  that  the 
old  fashioned  measure  of  our  grandfather’s  time  is  no  longer  used. 
There  have  been  like  changes  in  the  devices  used  to  measure  water 
and  while  we  still  retain  the  term  miners’  inch  we  seldom  ascertain 
the  flow  by  the  miners’  inch  box.  For  small  streams  of  water  such  as 
are  applied  to  orchard  and  garden  tracts  the  miners’  inch  is  a conven- 
ient unit  and  there  are  advantages  in  continuing  its  use.  In  adopting 
a new  standard  the  members  of  our  state  legislature  foresaw  the  ex- 
tended use  of  the  old  unit  and  so  deflned  it  in  accurate  terms.  Forty 
(40)Montana  miners’  inches  are  the  exact  equivalent  of  one  cubic  foot 
per  second.  An  irrigation  stream  containing  80  miners’  inches  would 
be  described  as  two  second-feet  by  the  new  standard,  one  containing 
120  miners’  inches  as  three  second  feet,  and  so  on. 

!^cee-Foot. — The  second-foot  and  the  , miners’  inch  can  only  be 
used  for  water  in  motion.  It  is  often  convenient  in  irrigation  to 
describe  a certain  volume  of  water  in  a state  of  rest.  The  cubic  foot 
might  have  been  adopted  for  this  purpose  had  it  not  been  too  small. 
It  would  have  been  but  a drop  in  a bucket  when  compared  with  the 
large  quantities  used  in  irrigation.  Accordingly  the  acre-foot  has  been 
quite  generally  adopted. 

This  unit  represents  the  quantity  of  water  which  would  cover  an 
acre  to  the  depth  of  one  foot.  Since  there  are  43560  square  feet  in  an 
acre,  an  acre-foot  contains  43560  cubic  feet.  . Rainfall  is  measured  in 
depth  over  the  surface  and  of  late  years  the  tendency  has  been  to 
measure  water  for  irrigation  in  the  same  way.  One  frequently  hears 
it  stated  by  practical  irrigators  that  forty  acres  of  spring  wheat  will 
require  40  miners’  inches.  But  this  statement  conveys  no  definite  idea 
as  to  the  actual  amount  of  water  applied  to  the  wheat  field  because  the 
number  of  days  the  stream  has  been  allowed  to  run  on  the  field  is  not 
given.  When,  however,  one  states  that  60  acre- feet  were  applied  in 
two  irrigations  it  shows  that  a certain  definite  volume  of  water  was 
used  during  stated  periods  and  that  this  volume  was  sufficient  to  have 
covered  the  40  acre  field  to  a depth  of  l-J  feet. 

One  Irrigation. — How  much  water  does  it  require  for  one  irriga- 
tion ? The  amount  will,  of  course,  vary  with  a score  or  more  of  condi- 
tions. It  may  interest  the  reader  to  know  that  of  44  experiments 


FAKMEKS’  WEIRS. 


9 


made  by  this  Station  in  different  parts  of  Montana  the  average  was  10 
inches  of  water  over  the  surface  irrigated.  This  amount  included  all 
waste  incurred  on  the  field  but  did  not  include  the  losses  in  conveying 
the  water  from  the  natural  channel  to  the  borders  of  the  field.  The 
writer  has  found  that  with  well  made  field  laterals  and  skilled  irrigators 
6 inches  of  water  will  suffice  to  wet  the  soil  to  an  average  depth  of 
one  foot. 

The  Standard  Unit  and  the  Acre-Foot. — Irrigators  frequently 
wish  to  convert  running  w^ater  into  volumes.  It  may  interest  them  fo 
learn  that  a second-foot,  or  40  miners’  inches,  flowing  on  an  acre  for 
one  hour  will  cover  it  to  a depth  of  one  inch.  If  this  stream  is  allowed 
to  flow  on  an  acre  for  a day  it  will  cover  it  to  a depth  of  two  feet. 
This  rule  is  not  quite  exact  but  may  be  used  in  general  practice.  ^ 

Irrigatioa  Water  Should  be  Measured. 

Throughout  the  irrigated  portions  of  Montana,  40  acres  of  land 
wdth  20  miners’  inches  of  water  will  produce  more  than  80  acres  with- 
out water.  If  this  be  true,  and  the  statement  would  seem  to  be 
extremely  conservative,  a miners’  inch  of  water  apart  from  the  cost  of 
irrigation  is  equal  in  value  to  two  acres  of  land.  Still  one  finds  that 
land  is  measured  and  mapped  and  when  sold  the  purchaser  is  careful 
to  see  that  the  deed  is  valid  apd  properly  recoii^Ied*.  Whereas,  in  the 
case  of  irrigation  water  probably  less  than  five  per  cent  of  the  total  vol- 
ume used  in  the  state  has  ever  been  measured.  ; I < 

The  New  Standard.  ’ 

lam  often  asked  to  explain  the  new  way  of  measuring  water. 
The  Montana  legislature  has  prescribed  no  new  method.  It  has  merely 
adopted  a standard  unit  in  which  all  volumes  of  running  water  are 
hereafter  to  be  expressed. 

The  same  legislative  assembly  might  have  adopted  the  hundred 
weight  as  the  standard  unit  for  the  sale  of  all  grains  and  defined  the 
bushel  as  equivalent  to  50  pounds.  Such  a law  would  not  have  com- 
pelled farmers  to  use  a particular  make  of  scale  or  prevented  them 
from  using  the  bushel  measure.  The  citizens  of  the  state  may  measure 


10 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


f^/an 

ly  c/r'  J3oarx7  //? 


FARMERS’  WEIRS. 


11 


Bill  of  Material  for  Weir  Box  No.  2* 


No.  of 
Pieces. 

Actual 

DimeDsions. 

B.  M. 

Feet. 

Where 

Used. 

Remarks. 

6 

In.  In.  Ft.  In 

2 X 12  X 10 

120 

Lining,  Sides 

Lumber,  Rough. 

4 

2 X 12  X 10 

80 

Lining,  Bottom 

( i < ( 

1 

2 X 6 X lb 

10 

Lining,  Bottom 

“ 

8 

2x4x5 

26% 

Sills  and  Ties  | 

< 4 

8 

2x4x34 

17% 

Posts 

4 4 4 4 

2 

2 X 12  X 5 

20 

Aprons 

4 4 4 4 

2 

2 X 12  X 4 

16 

Weir  Board 

Clear  Lumber  Surface. 

1 

2 X 10  X 4 

6% 

Weir  Board 

44  44  44 

4 

lx  2 X 2 6 

1% 

Cleats,  Sides 

44  (4  44 

2 

1x2x4 

IK 

Cleats,  Bottom 

44  44  44 

73^  lbs.  20d  wire  naile. 
3^'  lb.  6d  wire  Dai  Is. 


12 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


irrigation  water  by  any  accurate  method  providing  the  results  are 
expressed  in  cubic  feet  per  second.  . ^ 

CuEEENT  Metee  Measueemants. — Of  late  years  small  insturments 
called  current  meters  have  been  manufactured  by  several  firms  at 
prices  ranging  from  $50  to  $200  each.  These  meters  indicate  the 
velocity  of  the  water  in  any  open  channel  and  the  mean  velocity  when 
multiplied  by  the  area  of  the  section  gives  the  discharge.  This  mode 
of  measuring  water  has  become  quite  popular  owing  to  the  ease  and 
rapidity  with  which  it  can  be  done  and  also  to  the  fact  that  fairly 
accurate  results  can  be  obtained  without  the  use  of  fiumes.  boxes,  or 
other  devices. 

Rating  Flumes. — For  occasional  measurements  the  earthen 
channel  of  a ditch,  or  canal,  answers  all  purposes  but  when  more 
accurate  and  continuous  measurements  are  desired  rating  fiumes  are 
usually  constructed.  These  consist  of  wooden  fiumes  as  wide  as  the 
the  water  channel  and  from  8 to  24  feet  in  length  placed  to  conform 
with  the  grade  of  the  canal.  The  velocity  of  the  water  is  found  by 
a current  meter  and  the  depth  of  water  is  ofter  recorded  on  a sheet 
attached  to  a self  registering  machine  which  needs  attention  only  every 
seventh  day.  . :i 

Weie  Boxes. — A weir  box  usally  consists  of  a fiume  with  the  lower 
end  enclosed.  In  the  middle  of  the  top  of  the  lower  end  a notch  is  cut 
through  which  the  water  to  be  measured  flows.-  Weirs- require  no 
instruments  other  then  a foot  rule,  they  are  easily  and  cheaply  made 
and  measure  flowing  water  within  two  per  cent  of  accuracy  when  all 
the  requisite  conditions  are  fulfilled.  Weir  boxes  aS  compared  with 
miners’  inch  boxes  are  more  accurate  can  be  built  for  the  same  if  not 
for  less  money  and  can  be  used  to  measure  much  larger  volumes.  The 
chief  defects  of  this  device  are  that  the  box  often  fills  with  sediment 
which  must  be  removed  and  that  the  water  as  it  issues  from  the  notch 
requires  a drop  of  at  least  double  the  depth  of  water  flowing  through 
the  notch. 

Where  to  Place  Farmers^  Weirs* 

For  nearly  half  a century  western  irrigators  have  tried  to  devise  a 
way  by  which  water  might  be  measured  as  it  flows  through  a headgate. 


FAEMEK’S  WEIKS. 


13 


They  hoped  to  make  one  structure  answer  two  purposes.  In  this 
they  have  failed  for  the  reason  that  water  is  so  much  agitated  and  so 
irregular  in  flow^  as  it  passes  through  a headgate  as  to  render  it 
impossible  to  secure  an  accurate  measurement.  Of  late  years,  measur- 
ing boxes  have  been  placed  at  the  most  suitable  points  below  the  head- 
gates  and  the  latter  con  ^rol  the  stream  while  the  former  indicate  the 
volumes.  This  rule  applies  to  weirs.  It  is  well  to  have  a space  of  at 
least  50  ft.  between  the  two  structures  and  if  a better  site  can  be  se- 
cured farther  down  the  ditch  the  intervening  distance  may  be  increased 
to  several  hundred  feet. 

The  weir  boxes  from  No.  1 to  No.  4 inclusive  sketched  in  this 
bulletin  are  intended  to  be  placed  near  the  head  gates  of  farmers’' 
laterals  which  divert  water  from  natural  streams  or  canals.  These 
boxes  are  designed  to  measure  from  5 to  300  miners’  inches  and  are 
intended  for  individual,  and  in  the  case  of  the  larger  sizes,  for  partner- 
ship use.  Weir  box  No.  5 may  be  used  at  the  head  of  a large  lateral, 
or  on  one  of  the  branches  of  a canal.  It  will  measure  sufficient  water 
to  supply  the  needs  of  from  5 to  15  farmers. 

How  to  Place  Weir  Boxes* 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  weirs  require 
a fall  and  with  this  in  mind  select  for  a site  a part  of  the  ditch  that 
has  a heavy  grade. 

The  weir  box  should  be  placed  on  a level  in  both  directions  having 
the  floor  at  the  lower  end  on  a level  with  the  bottom  of  the  ditch. 
The  ditch  banks  above  the  weir  box  should  be  raised  in  order  that 
the  water  may  flow  through  the  notch  in  the  weir  board.  When 
the  weir  box  is  in  position  the  apron  is  inserted  in  front  and  moist 
earth  carefully  tamped  around  the  side.  The  ditch  for  a distance  of 
50  feet,  or  more,  above  the  weir  box  should  be  regular  and  equal  in 
depth  and  width  to  the  inner  dimensions  of  the  box.  Care  must 
be  taken  that  no  water  escapes  either  beneath  or  at  the  sides  of 
the  box. 

In  the  case  of  the  smaller  sizes,  the  box  may  be  built  at  the 
most  convenient  place,  hauled  to  the  site  and  then  put  in  place. 

It  is  usually  more  convenient  to  build  it  on  the  site.  The 


14 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION: 


FARMERS’  WEIRS. 


15 


Bill  of  Material  for  Weir  Box  No.  3. 

No.  of 
Pieces. 

Actual 

Dimensions. 

B.  M. 
Feet, 

Where 

Used. 

Remarks. 

6 

In.  In.  Ft.  In 

2 X 12  X 12 

144 

Lining,  Sides 

Lumber,  Rough 

2 

2 X 10  X 12 

40 

Lining,  Sides 

a it 

3 

2x12x12 

72 

Lining,  Bottom 

ii  ii 

4 

2 X 10  X 12 

80 

Lining,  Bottom 

i i i i 

4 

4 X 4 X 6 4 

34 

Sills. 

i i < < 

4 

3 X 4 X 6 4 

24 

Ties. 

6 i 6 6 

16 

2 X 4 X 4 2 

67 

Posts. 

6 6 6 6 

2 

2 X 12  X 64 

25K 

Aprons. 

6 6 6 6 

1 

2 X 18  X 5 4>^ 

16 

Weir  Board 

Clear  Lumber  surfaced. 

2 

2 X 12  X 5 434 

21>^ 

Weir  Board 

66  66  66 

4 

lx  2 X 3 4 

Cleats  on  Sides 

66  66  66 

2 

lx  2 X 5 434 

Cleats,  Bottom 

66  66  6 J 

11  ibs.  20ci  wire  oails. 
lb.  6d  wire  nails. 


16 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


FARMERS’  WEIRS. 


17 


Bill  of  Material  for  Weir  Box  No*  4. 

No;  of 
Pieces. 

Actual 

Dimensions. 

B.  M. 

Feet, 

Where 

Used. 

Remarks. 

6 

In.  Id.  Ft.  In 
2 X 12  X 16 

190 

Lining,  Sides 

Lumber,  Rougli 

^ 2 

2 X 10  X 16 

53K 

Lining,  Sides 

i 6 i i 

4 

2 X 12  X 16 

128 

Lining,  Bottom 

a it 

4 

2 X 10  X 16 

106% 

Lining,  Bottom 

< i < i 

4 

00 

X 

X 

^0  8-9 

Sills. 

a i i 

4 

3 X 4x7  8 

30% 

Ties. 

( ( < < 

16 

2 X 6x4  4 

69% 

Posts. 

i 6 n 

2 

2 X 12  X 7 8 

30% 

Aprons. 

t i a 

1 

2 x 16  X 6 4 

16  8-9 

Weir  Board 

Clear  Lumber  surfaced. 

2 

2 X 14  X 6 4 

39  5.9 

Weir  Board 

i < ( ( 

4 

lx  2x2  6 

IK 

Cleats  on  Sides 

( ( ( ( i i 

2 

1 X 2x6  4 

2 1-9 

Cleats,  Bottom 

< ( a (9 

12  lbs.  20cl  wire  nails. 
1 lb.  6d  wire  nails. 


18 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


P>arf  P/ar>  s^ory//?^ 
PVe/>-Goorz:/  /y’  P/i/me 


WE/R  BOX  N^S 

To  Measure  from  /OO  /o/OOO  M/ners  /ncfes 


FARMERS’  WEIRS. 


19 


Bill  of  Material  for  Weir  Box  No*  5* 


No.  of 
Pieces. 

Actual 

Dimensions’ 

B.  M. 

Peet 

Where 

Used. 

Remarks. 

10 

lu.  In.  Pt.  In 
2 X 12  X 18 

360 

Lining  Sides. 

Lumber,  Rough. 

12 

2 X 12  X 18 

432 

Lining  Bottom. 

it  i i 

8 

4 X 6 X 12 

193 

Sills  and  Ties. 

6 6 H 

16 

2 X 6x5  8 

91 

Posts. 

6 6 6 6 

2 

2 X 12  X 12  34 

48 

Aprons. 

6 6 6 i 

1 

3 X 20  X 10  834 

5334 

Weir  Board. 

.Clear  Lumber  Surfaced. 

3 

3 X 14  X 10  834 

112 

i i i 6 

U 6 6 6 6 

4 

2 X 4x2  6 

6% 

Cleats,  sides. 

*6  66  66 

2 

2 X 4x11 

14% 

Cleats,  bottom. 

66  66  66 

10  lbs.  20d  wire  nails. 

1 lb.  6d  wire  nails. 

32  ^ in.  X 11  ins.  Machine  bolts. 


20 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


frame  work  or  yokes  are  first  framed  and  put  into  position  after 
which  the  flooring  and  sides  are  nailed  on  and  last  of  all  the  weir 
board  is  inserted. 

Weir  Gauges* 

When  great  accuracy  is  required  the  depth  of  water  over  the  crest 
of  the  weir  is  found  by  means  of  an  instrument  called  a Hooke  Gauge. 
The  farmer  uses  simpler  if  less  accurate  methods.  When  the  weir 
box  is  placed,  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  bottom  of  the  notch,  or 
crest,  level.  An  ordinary  carxDenter’s  spirit  level  may  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  When  the  crest  is  horizontal,  one  end  of  the  spirit  level  is 
placed  on  the  center  of  the  crest  and  when  level  the  other  end  will 
mark  the  point  for  the  zero  of  the  weir  gauge.  In  rough  work  a nail 
may  be  driven  part  way  into  the  side  of  the  box,  the  top  of  the  nail 
being  level  with  the  crest  of  the  weir.  A thin  plate  of  brass  is  to  be 
preferred  to  a nail.  In  other  cases  gauges  are  inserted  on  the  sides  of 
the  flume  and  properly  marked  in  tenths  of  feet  or  inches.  At  other 
times  a post  from  1 to  2 inches  square  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the 
box  and  several  feet  above  the  weir  board.  The  top  of  this  post  is  on 
a level  with  the  crest. . 

Drawings  of  Weir  Boxes. 

The  first  sketch  represents  a weir  box  in  use  and  is  introduced 
for  the  purpose  of.  conveying  some  idea  of  the  manner  of  placing  such 
boxes  in  a lateral,  or  ditch.  The  gauge  post  referred  to  in  a former 
paragraph  is  shown  beneath  the  second  tie-beam.  Measurements  are 
made  from  the  top  of  the  post. 

Weie  Box  No.  1 — is  designed  to  measure  from  a few  miners’ 
inches  up  to  40  miners’  inches.  The  length  of  the  weir  notch  is  12 
inches. 

Weie  Box  No.  2 — will  measure  volumes  from  25  to  100  miners’ 
inches.  If  extreme  accuracy  is  not  required  it  will  also  measure  from 
1 to  25  miners’  inches.  The  preceding  statement  applies  to  all  the 
sketches  introduced  in  this  bulletin. 

Weie  Box  No.  3 — should  be  used  for  all  streams  that  do  not  ex- 
ceed 200  miners’  inches. 

Weie  Box  No. 4 — has  a length  of  weir  of  3 feet  and  will  measure 


FARMEKS’  WEIRS.  • 


21 


quantities  of  water  ranging  from  a few  miners’  inches  to  300  miners’ 
inches. 

Weik  Box  No.  5 — represents  the  kind  of  box  to  insert  on  main 
laterals  which  supply  a number  of  individual  shareholders.  If  it  be 
desired  to  measure  volumes  larger  then  1000  miners’  inches  the  length 
of  the  weir  may  be  incressed  from  7 to  8,  9 or  10  feet.  Any  increase 
in  the  length  of  the  weir  should  be  followed  by  a like  increase  in  the 
other  parts  of  the  box.  On  the  other  hand  if  the  volume  to  be  meas- 
ured be  less  than  1000  miners’  inches  the  length  of  the  weir  in  No.  5 
may  be  decreased  to  5 or  4,  feet  decreasing  the  other  parts  in  proi:)ortion. 

Weir  Tables. 

Table  No  1 — was  jDrepared  by  Mr.  J.  S.  Baker,  Instructor  in  Civil 
Engineering,  assisted  by  Mr.  W.  B.  Freeman.  To  accommodate  the 
farmers  who  use  for  the  most  part  a cari3enter’s  rule  or  a square,  the 
depths  over  the  crest  are  given  in  inches  and  fractions  of  an  inch. 
The  discharges  are  given  in  Montana  miners’  inches  and  were  com- 
puted to  the  nearest  whole  number  from  the  formula.  Q - 3.3|  L. 
H.  I 

Table  No.  2 — is  inserted  for  the  benefit  of  engineers  .and  canal 
suj3erintendents  who  use  decimal  parts  of  a foot  instead  of  inches  and 
fractions  thereof.  The  discharges  are  expressed  in  cubic  feet  per 
second.  This  table  is  taken  from  Bulletin  No,  86  of  the  Irrigation 
Investigation  series  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  was  com- 
puted by  Mr.  C.  T.  Johnston  under  the  surpervision  of  .Professor 
Elwood  Mead. 

How  to  Measure  Water  Over  Weirs. 

The  method  to  follow  can  best  be  shown  by  examples.  Let  us 
suppose  that  a farmer  has  made  and  placed  a box  similar  to  the  one 
shown  in  drawing  No.  1.  After  turning  in  the  water  and  allowing  it 
some  time  to  attain  a uniform  flow  he  proceeds  to  the.  weir  box  and 
with  an  ordinary  rule  measures  the  depth  of  water  flowing  through  the 
weir  notch.  Bear  in  mind  that  this  measurement  is  not  made  at  the 
weir  board  but  at  the  regular  gauge  whether  it  be  a nail,  brass  plate, 
or  post  as  described  under  that  head.  We  will  assume  that  the  depth 


22 


MONTANA  EXPEKIAIENT  STATION. 


as  found  by  the  rule  is  3^  inches.  Now  by  referring  to  Table  1 he 
follows  down  the  first  cobimn  until  3^  is  reached.  The  weir  used  is 
one  foot  and  under  the  column  marked  T-foot  weir’  and  opposite  the 
figure  3^  already  found  he  finds  the  number  21  which  indicates  the 
number  of  miner’s  inches  flowing  over  a one  foot  weir  when  the  depth 
of  water  is  3^  inches.  If  the  depth  had  been  4 inches,  the  flow  would 
have  been  26  miners’  inches;  if  6 inches,  48  miners’  inches  and  so  on. 

As  a second  example,  let  us  suppose  that  Weir  box  No.  3 is  put 
in  place  and  the  water  turned  on.  The  depth  as  measured  is,  say  4 
inches.  N 3w  we  search  for  figure  4 in  the  first  column  and  then  find 
the 'discharge  in  the  column  marked  ‘2-foot  weir’  which  is  52  miners’ 
inches.  If  the  depth  had  been  8 inches  the  discharge  would  have  been 
147  miners’  inches  thus  showing  that  the  discharge  over  weirs  is  not 
in  proportion  to  the  depth. 

Acknowledgment . 

It  is  fitting  that  we  should  express  our  indebtedness  to  Cesare 
Cippoletti,  the  celebrated  Italian  Engineer  who  has  given  to  the  world 
the  Cippoletti  Weir  and  to  Director  L.  G.  Carpenter  of  Colorado  for 
introducing  this  weir  into  Western  America.  In  the  foregoing  pages 
the  writer  has  attempted  to  describe  how  Cippoletti  weirs  may  be 
made  and  used  by  Western  farmers. 

I have  also  to  acknowledge  the  assistance  rendered  by  Professor 
Elwood  Mead  of  the  office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Mr.  K.  C.  Schaub,  a former  student  of  the  writer,  prepared  the 
drawings. 


FAKMERS’  WEIRS. 


23 


TABLE  I.  Discharges  of  Farmers'  Weirs  of  Different  lengths,  ex- 
pressed in  Montana  Miners'  Inches. 


Depth 

of 

water 

1 foot 

]K-ft. 

2 foot 

.3- foot 

4-foot 

5-foot 

6 foot 

7-foot 

[8-foot 

9-foot 

10-ft. 

on 

crest. 

weir. 

weir. 

weir. 

weir. 

weir. 

weir. 

weir. 

weir. 

weir. 

weir. 

weir. 

Inches. 

Miner’s 

Inches. 

Miner’s 

Inches. 

Miner’s 
Inches . 

Miner’s 

Inches. 

Miner’s 

Inches. 

Miner’s 
Inches . 

Miner’s 

Inches. 

Miner’s 
Inches . 

Miner’s 

Inches. 

Miner’s 
Inches . 

Miner’s 

Inches. 

Vs 

h 

5-16 

7- -.6 

9-16 

11-16 

Ya 

1 

Wa 

IV4 

1 7-16 

K 

?8 

ra 

1 3-16 

1 9-16 

2 

2 5-16 

2% 

Wa 

31/2 

4 

M 

K 

IK 

IK 

2K 

3 

3K 

4K 

6 

6K 

7K 

34 

IK 

IM 

2K 

3K 

4K 

5K 

6K 

8 

9K 

10% 

iiK 

IK 

2 

3 

5 

6 

8 

10 

11 

13 

14 

16 

2 

3 

4 

6 

8 

11 

13 

15 

17 

19 

21 

% 

3 

4 

5 

8 

11 

13 

16 

19 

21 

24 

27 

1 

3 

5 

6 

10 

13 

16 

19 

23 

26 

29 

32 

IM 

4 

6 

8 

12 

15 

19 

23 

27 

31 

35 

39 

IM 

5 

7 

9 

14 

18 

23 

27 

.32 

36 

41 

45 

IM 

5 

8 

10 

16 

21 

26 

31 

37 

42 

47 

52 

IK 

6 

9 

12 

18 

24 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

IK 

7 

10 

13 

20 

27 

34 

40 

47 

54 

60 

67 

IK 

7 

11 

15 

22 

.30 

‘38 

45 

52 

60 

67 

75 

IK 

8 

12 

17 

25 

33 

42 

50 

58 

67 

75 

83 

2 

9 

14 

18 

27 

37 

46 

55 

64 

73 

83 

92 

2K 

10 

15 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

2K 

11 

16 

22 

33 

44 

55 

66 

77 

87 

98 

109 

2% 

12 

18 

24 

36 

47 

59 

71 

83 

95 

107 

119 

2K 

13 

19 

26 

38 

51 

64 

77 

90 

102 

115 

128 

2K 

14 

21 

28 

4L 

55 

69 

83 

97 

110 

124 

138 

2K 

15 

22 

30 

44 

59 

74 

' 89 

103 

118 

133 

148 

2K 

16 

24 

32 

47 

63 

79 

95 

111 

126 

142 

158 

3 

17 

25 

34 

51 

68 

85 

102 

119 

136 

152 

169 

3K 

18 

. 26 

36 

54 

72 

90 

108 

125 

143 

161 

179 

3K 

19 

28 

38 

57 

76 

95 

114 

133 

152 

171 

190 

3K 

20 

30 

40 

60 

80 

100 

121 

141 

161 

181 

201 

3K 

21 

32 

42 

64 

85 

106 

127 

149 

169 

191 

212 

3K 

22 

34 

45 

67 

89 

112 

134 

157 

179 

201 

224 

24 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Table  I.  Diecharges*  of  Farmers’  Weirs  of  Different  lens^ths,  ex- 
pressed in  Montana  Miners’  Inches. — Continued. 


Depth 

of 

water 

on 

crest. 

l-foot 

weir. 

IV^-foot 

weir. 

2-fo3t 

weir. 

3-foot 

weir. 

I-foot 

weir. 

5-foot 

weir. 

6-foot 

weir. 

7-foot 

weir. 

8-foot 

weir. 

9-foot 

weir. 

10-9oot 

weir. 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Mil  ers’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners^! 

Miners’ 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

24 

35 

47 

71 

94 

118 

141 

165 

188 

212 

235 

25 

37 

49 

74 

99 

124 

148 

173 

198 

222 

247 

4 

26 

39 

52 

78 

104 

130 

155 

181 

207 

233 

259 

27 

41 

54 

81 

109 

136 

163 

190 

217 

244 

271 

4)4 

28 

43 

57 

85 

114 

142 

170 

199 

227 

255 

284 

4M 

30 

44 

59 

89 

119 

148 

178 

207 

237 

267 

296 

4K 

31 

46 

62 

93 

124 

155 

185 

216 

247 

278 

309 

4M 

32 

48 

64 

97 

129 

161 

193 

226 

258 

290 

322 

4^ 

34 

50 

67 

101 

134 

167 

201 

235 

268 

302 

335 

4)g 

35 

52 

70 

105 

139 

174 

209 

244 

279 

.314 

349 

5 

36 

54 

72 

109 

145 

181 

217 

254 

290 

326 

362 

5% 

38 

56 

75 

113 

150 

188 

225 

263 

301 

.338 

376 

5)4 

39 

58 

78 

117 

156 

195 

234 

273 

312 

350 

390 

5% 

40 

61 

81 

121 

161 

202 

242 

282 

323 

362 

404 

5)4 

42 

63 

84 

125 

167 

209 

251 

292 

334 

376 

418 

5M 

43 

65 

86 

130 

173 

216 

259 

303 

346 

389 

432 

5^ 

45 

67 

89 

134 

179 

223 

268 

313 

357 

402 

447 

5)^ 

46 

69 

92 

138 

185 

231 

277 

,323 

369 

415 

461 

6 

48 

71 

95 

143 

190 

238 

286 

333 

381 

429 

476 

6)4 

49 

74 

98 

147 

196 

246 

295 

344 

393 

442 

491 

6)4 

51 

76 

101 

152 

202 

253 

304 

354 

405 

455 

506 

6% 

52 

78 

104 

156 

209 

261 

313 

365 

417 

469 

521 

6)4 

54 

81 

107 

161 

215 

269 

322 

375 

429 

483 

537 

6^ 

55 

83 

110 

166 

221 

276 

331 

387 

442 

497 

552 

6M 

57 

85 

114 

170 

227 

284 

341 

398 

454 

511 

568 

eXs 

58 

88 

117 

175 

234 

292 

350 

409 

467 

525 

584 

7 

60 

90 

120 

180 

240 

300 

360 

420 

480 

540 

600 

7)4 

62 

92 

123 

185 

246 

308 

370 

431 

493 

554 

616 

7)4 

63 

95 

126 

190 

253 

316 

379 

443 

506 

569 

632 

FARMER’S  WEIRS. 


25 


Table  1.  Discharges  of  Farmers’  Weirs  of  Different  lengths,  ex- 
pressed in  Montana  Miners’  Inches. — Continued. 


Depth 

of 

water 

on 

crest. 

1-foot 

weir. 

l-i/zfoot 

weir. 

2-foot 

weir. 

3-foot 

weir. 

4-foot 

weir. 

5-foot 

weir. 

6- foot 

weir. 

7-foot 

weir. 

8-foot 

weir. 

9-foot 

weir. 

10-foot 

weir. 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miness’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Ws 

65 

97 

130 

195 

260 

324 

389 

454 

519 

584 

649 

67 

100 

133 

200 

266 

333 

399 

466 

532 

599 

665 

68 

102 

136 

205 

273 

341 

409 

477 

546 

614 

682 

m 

70 

105 

140 

210 

280 

349 

419 

489 

559 

629 

699 

72 

107 

143 

215 

286 

358 

430 

501 

573 

644 

716 

8 

73 

110 

147 

220 

293 

367 

440 

513 

586 

660 

733 

8% 

75 

113 

150 

225 

300 

375 

450 

525 

600 

675 

750 

8M 

77 

115 

154 

230 

307 

384 

461 

537 

614 

691 

768 

8% 

79 

118 

157 

236 

314 

393 

471 

550 

628 

707 

785 

8^ 

80 

120 

161 

241 

321 

401 

482 

562 

642 

722 

803 

8M 

82 

123 

164 

246 

328 

410 

492 

574 

656 

739 

821 

8M 

84 

126 

168 

252 

335 

419 

503 

587 

671 

755 

838 

8;g 

86 

128 

171 

257 

343 

428 

514 

599 

685 

771 

856 

9 

87 

131 

175 

262 

350 

437 

525 

612. 

700 

788 

875 

134 

179 

268 

357 

446 

536 

625 

714 

804 

893 

9M 

137 

182 

273 

364 

456 

547 

638 

729 

820 

911 

139 

186 

279 

372 

465 

558 

651 

744 

837 

930 

142 

190 

285 

379 

474 

569 

664 

759 

854 

949 

9M 

145 

193 

290 

387 

484 

580 

677 

774 

861 

967 

9M 

148 

197 

296 

394 

493 

592 

690 

789 

888 

986 

9;^ 

151 

201 

302 

402 

503 

603 

704 

804 

905 

1005 

10 

154 

205 

307 

410 

512 

615 

717 

820 

922 

1024 

lOK 

157 

209 

313 

417 

522 

626 

731 

835 

939 

1044 

lOK 

159 

213 

319 

425 

532 

638 

744 

850 

957 

1063 

10% 

162 

217 

325 

433 

541 

650 

758 

866 

974 

1083 

10% 

165 

220 

331 

441 

551 

661 

771 

882 

992 

1102 

10% 

. . ^ . . . 

224 

337 

449 

561 

673 

785 

898 

1010 

1122 

10% 

228 

342 

457 

571 

685 

799 

913 

1027 

1142 

10% 

2.32 

349 

465 

581 

697 

813 

930 

1046 

1162 

26 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


Table  1.  Discharges  of  Farmers’  Weirs  of  Different  lengths,  ex- 
pressed in  Montana  Miners’  Inches. — Continued. 


Depth 

of 

water 

on 

crest. 

l-foot 

weir. 

11/2 -foot 

weir. 

2-foot 

weir. 

3-foot 

weir. 

I-foot 

weir. 

5-foot 

weir. 

6-foot 

weir. 

7-foot 

weir. 

8-foot 

weir. 

9-foot 

weir. 

10-foot 

weir. 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Miners’ 

Inches. 

Inches . 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

11  

236 

355 

473 

591 

709 

827 

946 

1064 

1182 

111^  

240 

361 

481 

601 

721 

841 

962 

1082 

1202 

11^  

244 

367 

489 

611 

733 

856 

978 

1100 

1222 

11%  

249 

373 

497 

621 

746 

870 

994 

1119 

1243 

11%  

253 

379 

505 

632 

758 

884 

1011 

1137 

1263 

11%  

257 

385 

514 

642 

770 

899 

1027 

1156 

1284 

11%  

261 

391 

522 

652 

783 

913 

1044 

1174 

1305 

11%  

265 

398 

530 

663 

795 

928 

1060 

1193 

1326 

12  

269 

404 

539 

673 

808 

943 

1077 

1212 

1347 

12%  

410 

547 

684 

821 

958 

1094 

1231 

1368 

12%  

417 

556 

694 

833 

972 

nil 

1250 

1389 

12%  

423 

564 

705 

846 

987 

1128 

1269 

1410 

12%  

430 

573 

716 

859 

1002 

1145 

1289 

1432 

12%  

436 

582 

726 

872 

1017 

1162 

1308 

1454 

12%  ....  .... 

442 

590 

737 

885 

1032 

1180 

1328 

1475 

12%  

449 

599 

748 

898 

1048 

1197 

1348 

1497 

13  

456 

607 

759 

911 

1063 

1215 

1368 

1518 

13%  

462 

616 

770 

924 

1078 

1232 

1389 

1541 

13%  

469 

625 

781 

938 

1094 

1250 

1409 

1563 

13%  

475 

634 

792 

951 

1109 

1268 

1429 

1585 

13%  

482 

643 

803 

964 

1125 

1286 

1449 

1607 

W\ 

CO 

652 

815 

978 

1140 

1.303 

1469 

1629 

13%  

661 

826 

991 

1156 

1321 

1489 

1652 

13%  

670 

837 

1005 

1172 

1340 

1509 

1675 

14  

679 

849 

1019 

1189 

1359 

1530 

1699 

11%  

688 

860 

1032 

1204 

1376 

1550 

1721 

11%  

697 

871 

1046 

1220 

1394 

1570 

1743 

11%  

.... 

706 

883 

1059 

1236 

1412 

1590 

1766 

11%  

.... 

715 

894 

1073 

1252 

1431 

1610 

1789 

FAKMEKS’  WEIRS. 


27 


Table  1.  Discharges  of  Farmers’  Weirs  of  different  lengths,  ex- 
pressed in  Montana  Miners’  Inches. — Continued. 


Depth 

of 

water 

on 

crest. 

1-foot 

weir. 

lUz-foot 

weir. 

2-foot 

weir. 

3-foot 

weir. 

4-foot 

weir. 

5-foot 

weir. 

6-foot 

weir. 

7-foot 

weir. 

8-foot 

weir. 

9-foot 

weir. 

10-foot 

weir. 

Inches. 

Miners’ 

Inches. 

Miners’ 

Inches. 

Miners’ 

Inches. 

Miners’ 

Inches. 

Miners’ 

Inches. 

Miners’ 

Inches. 

Miners’ 

Inches. 

Miners’ 

Inches. 

Miners’ 

Inches. 

Miners’ 
Inches . 

Miners’ 

Inches. 

725 

903 

1087 

;268 

1449 

1631 

1812 

734 

918 

1101 

1285 

1468 

1652 

1835 

743 

929 

1115 

1301 

1487 

1673 

1859 

15 

753 

941 

1129 

1317 

1506 

1694 

1882 

15M 

953 

1143 

1334 

1524 

1715 

1906 

15M 

965 

1158 

1351 

1543 

1736 

1929 

15% 

977 

1172 

1368 

1562 

1757 

1953 

15% 

989 

1186 

1385 

1580 

1778 

1977 

15% 

1001 

1201 

1402 

1600 

1801 

2001 

15% 

1013 

1215 

1419 

1620 

1822 

2025 

15% 

1025 

1229 

1437 

1639 

1844 

2049 

16 

1037 

1244 

1455 

1659 

1866 

2073 

16% 

1049 

1259 

1472 

1678 

1888 

2098 

16% 

1061 

1273 

1489 

1698 

1910 

2122 

16% 

1073 

1288 

1506 

1717 

1932 

2147 

16% 

1086 

1303 

1523 

1737 

1954 

2171 

16% 

1098 

1318 

1539 

1757 

1976 

2196 

16% 

1110 

1333 

1556 

1777 

1999 

2221 

16% 

1123 

1348 

1572 

1797 

2021 

2246 

17 

1135 

1363 

1589 

1817 

2044 

2271 

17% 

1378 

1607 

1837 

2066 

2296 

17% 

1393 

1625 

1857 

2089 

2321 

17% 

1408 

1642 

1877 

2112 

2346 

17% 

1423 

1660 

1897 

2134 

2372 

17% 

1438 

1678 

1918 

2157 

2397 

17% 

1454 

1696 

1938 

2181 

2423 

17% 

1469 

1714 

1959 

2204 

2448 

18 

1484 

1732 

1979 

2226 

2474 

28  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Table  ii. — Discharges  of  Cippoletti  Weirs  of  different  lengths,  com- 
puted from  the  formula  Q — 3.3|  LH? 


Depth 

of 

water 
on 
crest . 

1-foot 

weir. 

li4  foot 
weir. 

2-foot 

weir. 

.3-foot 

weir. 

1-foot 

weir. 

5-foot 

weir. 

6-foot 

weir. 

7-foot 

weir. 

8-foot 

weir. 

9-foot 

weir. 

10-foot 

weir. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Feet 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

0.01 

0.0031 

0.0051 

0.0067 

0.0101 

0.01.35 

0.0168 

0.0202 

0.02.36 

0.0269 

0.0.303 

0.0.3,37 

.02 

.0095 

.0113 

.0190 

.0286 

.0381 

.0176 

.0.571 

.0667 

.0762 

.0857 

.09.52 

.03 

.0175 

.0262 

.0350 

. 0525 

.0700 

.0875 

.10.50 

.1225 

.1100 

.1,571 

.1719 

.(Jl 

.0269 

.0101 

.0539 

.0808 

.1077 

.1.317 

.1616 

.1885 

.21.55 

.2121 

.2693 

.05 

.0376 

.0565 

.07.53 

.1129 

.1.506 

.1882 

.22.58 

.26.35 

.3011 

..3388 

.3761 

.06 

.0195 

.0712 

.0990 

.1181 

.1979 

.2171 

.2969 

.3161 

.39.58 

.11.53 

.1918 

.07 

.0621 

.0935 

. 1217 

.1871 

.2191 

.,3118 

.3711 

.1.365 

.1988 

..5612 

.62.35 

.08 

.0762 

.1113 

.1.521 

.2285 

.3017 

..3809 

.1.571 

..5.3.33 

.6095 

. 6856 

.7618 

.09 

.0909 

.1361 

.1818 

.2727 

.36.36 

.1.515 

.51.51 

.6.363 

.7272 

.8181 

.9090 

.10 

. 1065 

.1.597 

.2129 

.3191 

.12.59 

..532.3 

.6388 

.71.52 

.8.517 

.9.582 

1.0616 

.11 

.1228 

.1812 

.2157 

. 3685 

.1913 

.6111 

.7.370 

.8.598 

.9826 

1 . 1051 

1.2283 

.12 

.1399 

.2099 

.2799 

.1198 

.,5.598 

.6997 

.8.397 

.9796 

1 . 1196 

1.2.595 

1..3995 

.13 

.1.578 

.2367 

.31.56 

.17.31 

.6.312 

.7890 

.9168 

1.1016 

1.2621 

1.1202 

1..5780 

.11 

.1761 

.2615 

.3527 

..5291 

.70.51 

.8818 

1.0.581 

1.21.55 

1.1108 

1..5872 

1.7.3.36 

.15 

.19.56 

.2931 

.3912 

..5868 

.7823 

.9779 

1.1735 

1..3691 

1..5617 

1.7603 

1.9.5.59 

.16 

.21.55 

.3232 

.1309 

.6161 

.8619 

1.0773 

1.2928 

1..5083 

1.72.37 

1.9392 

2.1517 

.17 

.2360 

.3.510 

.1720 

.7079 

.91.39 

1.1799 

1.11.59 

1.6519 

1.8878 

2.12.38 

2.-3.598 

.18 

.2.571 

.3857 

..5112 

.7713 

1.0281 

1.28.55 

1..5126 

1.7997 

2.0.568 

2.. 31.39 

2.. 5710 

.19 

.2788 

.1182 

.5576 

.8365 

1.11.53 

1..3911 

1.6729 

1.9.518 

2.2306 

2.. 5091 

2.7882 

.20 

.3011 

.1517 

.6022 

.90.31 

1.2015 

1.. 50.56 

1.8068 

2.1079 

2.1090 

2.7101 

3.0112 

.21 

.3210 

.1860 

.6180 

.9720 

1.2960 

1.6199 

1.9139 

2.2679 

2.5919 

2.91.59 

3.2.399 

22 

.3171 

.5211 

.6918 

1.0122 

1..3896 

1.7.370 

2.0811 

2.1.318 

2.7792 

,3.1266 

3.1710 

'.23 

.8711 

.5.570 

.7127 

1.1111 

1.18.51 

1.8.568 

2.2281 

2.. 5995 

2. 9701) 

3.. 3122 

3.71.36 

.21 

.3958 

.5938 

.7917 

1.1875 

l.,5831 

1.9792 

2.3750 

2.7709 

3.1667 

3.. 5625 

3.9.581 

.25 

.1208 

.6312 

.8117 

1.2625 

1.68.33 

2.1012 

2.. 52.50 

2.91.58 

3.-3666 

3.7875 

1.2083 

.26 

.1163 

.6695 

.8927 

1.3.390 

1.78.53 

2.2.317 

2.6780 

3.1213 

3.-5707 

1.0170 

1.16.33 

.27 

.1723 

.7085 

.9117 

1.1170 

1.8893 

2.3617 

2.8.310 

3.. 3063 

3.7787 

1.2.510 

1.72.33 

.28 

.1988 

.7182 

.9976 

1.1961 

1.99.52 

2.1911 

2.9929 

3.1917 

3.9905 

1.1893 

1.9881 

.29 

..5258 

.7887 

1.0515 

I..5773 

2.1031 

2.6289 

3.1.516 

3.6801 

1.2062 

1.7.319 

5.2.577 

.30 

..5.532 

.8298 

1 . 1061 

1.6.598 

2.2128 

2.7660 

,3., 31 92 

3.8721 

1.12.56 

1.9788 

5.. 5320 

.31 

..5811 

.8716 

1.1622 

1.71.33 

2.3211 

2.90.51 

3.1865 

1.0676 

1.6187 

5.2298 

5.8109 

.32 

.6091 

.9111 

1.2189 

1.8283 

2.1377 

3.0172 

3.6.566 

1.2660 

1.87.51 

5.1819 

6.0913 

.33 

.6382 

.9573 

1.2761 

1.9117 

2.. 5.529 

3.1911 

3.8293 

1.1675 

5.10.58 

5.7110 

6.3822 

.31 

.6671 

1.0012 

1.3319 

2.0023 

2.6698 

3.3.372 

1.0017 

1.6721 

5.. 3396 

6.0070 

6.6715 

.35 

.6971 

1.0157 

1.3912 

2.0913 

2.7881 

3.18.56 

1.1827 

1.8798 

5.-5769 

6.2710 

6.9711 

.36 

7972 

1.0908 

1.1.511 

2.1816 

2.9088 

3.6360 

1.36.32 

5.0901 

5.8176 

6.. 5118 

7.2720 

.37 

^7577 

1 . 1366 

1.51.51 

2.27.31 

3.0308 

3.7885 

1..5163 

5.3010 

6.0617 

6.8191 

7.. 57  71 

..38 

.7886 

1.1830 

1..5773 

2.36.59 

3.1.515 

3.9132 

1.7318 

5.. 5201 

6.. 3091 

7.0977 

7.8863 

..39 

.8200 

1.2300 

1.6399 

2.1.599 

3.2799 

1.0998 

1.9198 

5.7.398 

6.. 5.597 

7.3797 

8.1997 

.10 

.8517 

1.2776 

1.7031 

2.. 5.5.51 

3.1068 

1.2.585 

5.1102 

5.9619 

6.8137 

7.66.51 

8.. 51 71 

.11 

.8838 

1.32.58 

1.7677 

2.6.515 

3.-53,51 

1.1192 

5.3031 

6.1869 

7.0708 

.7.9-516 

8.8.381 

.12 

.9161 

1.3716 

1.8328 

2.7191 

3.6655 

1..5819 

5.1983 

6.1116 

7.3.310 

8.2171 

9.1638 

.13 

.9193 

1.1239 

1.8986 

2.8179 

3.7972 

1.7165 

5.69.58 

6.61.51 

7.. 5911 

8.. 51.37 

9.19.30 

.11 

.9826 

1.1739 

1.96.52 

2.9178 

3.9.301 

1.91.30 

5 . 8956 

6.8782 

7.8608 

8.8131 

9.8261 

.15 

1.0163 

1..5211 

2.0326 

3.0189 

1.06.52 

5.0815 

6.0978 

7.1111 

8.1.303 

9.1166 

10.1629 

.16 

1.0.501 

1 . 57.55 

2.1(X)7 

3.1.511 

1.2011 

5.2.518 

6.3021 

7.. 3.525 

8.1029 

9.1.5.32 

10.. 50.36 

.17 

1.0818 

1.6272 

2.1696 

.3.2.511 

1.3392 

5.1210 

6.. 5088 

7.-59.36 

8.6783 

9.76.31 

10.8179 

.18 

1.1196 

1.6791 

2.2392 

3.. 3.588 

1.1781 

5 . 5980 

6.7178 

7.8372 

8 . 9567 

10.0761 

11.1960 

.19 

1 . 1.518 

1.7321 

2.3095 

3.1613 

1.6191 

5.7738 

6.9286 

8.0831 

9.2,381 

10.3929 

11.. 5177 

..50 

1 . 1903 

1.78.51 

2.. 3806 

3.5709 

1.7612 

5.9.515 

7.1118 

8.3321 

9.. 5221 

10.7127 

11.90-30 

.51 

1.8393 

2.1.521 

3.  )785 

1.9017 

6.1309 

7.. 3.571 

8.5833 

9.8095 

11.03.56 

12.2618 

..52 

1.8936 

2.5218 

3.7873 

5.0197 

6.. 31 21 

7 . 5715 

8.8370 

10.0991 

11.3618 

12.6212 

..53 

1.9185 

2.. 5980 

3.8970 

5.15X51 

6.1951 

7.7911 

9.0931 

10.3921 

11.6911 

12.9901 

.51 

2.0039 

2.6719 

1.0079 

5.3138 

6.6798 

8.0157 

9.3.517 

10.6876 

12.0236 

13.-3.595 

..55 

2.0.598 

2.7165 

1.1197 

5.1929 

6.8662 

8.2391 

9.6126 

10.98.59 

12.3.591 

13.7.323 

.56 

2.1163 

2.8217 

1.2326 

5.6131 

7.0513 

8.1651 

9.8760 

11.2868 

12.6977 

11.1085 

.57 

2.1732 

2.8976 

1.3161 

5.7953 

7.2111 

8.6929 

10.1117 

11.. 5905 

13.0.393 

11.1881 

.58 

2.2307 

2.9712 

1.1613 

5.9181 

7.13.55 

8.9226 

10.1097 

11.8969 

13.3810 

11.8711 

..59 

2.2886 

3.0515 

1..5772 

6.1029 

7.6287 

9.1.511 

10.6801 

12.20.59 

13.7613 

15.2.573 

.60 

2.:il70 

3.1291 

1.6910 

6.2.587 

7.8231 

9.3881 

10.9.527 

12.. 51 71 

11.0821 

15.6168 

.61 

2.10.59 

3.2079 

1.8119 

6.11.59 

8.0198 

9.6238 

11.2278 

12.8317 

11.1.3.57 

16.0.396 

FAKMERS’  WEIRS. 


29 


Table  ii — Discharges  of  Cippoletti  Weirs  of  difiereiit  lengths  com- 
IDutecl  from  the  Formula  Q — 3.3f  LH| — Continued. 


Depth 

of 

water 

on 

crest. 

1-foot 

weir. 

1 14 -foot 
weir . 

2-foot 
weir . 

3-foot 

weir. 

1-foot 

weir. 

,5-foot 

weir. 

6-foot 
weir . 

7-foot 

weir. 

8-foot 

weir. 

9-foot 

weir. 

10-foot 

weir. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft, 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Feet . 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

per  ces. 

per  sec. 

per  sec. 

0.62 

2.16.51 

3.2871 

1.9.307 

6.. 5713 

8.2178 

9.8611 

11.50.50 

13.1186 

11.7921 

16.13,57 

.63 

2 .7‘>r>2 

3.. 3670 

5.0.505 

6.7310 

8.1175 

10.1009 

11.7811 

13.1679 

15.1,511 

16.8.319 

.61 

2., 58.56 

3.1175 

5.1712 

6.8919 

8.6187 

10., 3121 

12.0661 

13.7899 

15.. 5136 

17.2,373 

.65 

2.6161 

3.-5286 

5.2929 

7.0.572 

8.8215 

10., 58,57 

12.3.500 

11.111,3 

15.8786 

17.6129 

.66 

2.7077 

3.6103 

5.1155 

7.2206 

9.02.58 

10.8310 

12.6.361 

11.1113 

16.2J65 

18.0.516 

.67 

2. 7695 

3.6927 

5.5.390 

7.3851 

9.2317 

11.0781 

12.9211 

11.7707 

16.6171 

18.16.31 

.68 

2.8.317 

3.7757 

5.66.35 

7., 5.513 

9.1392 

11.. 3270 

13.2118 

15.1027 

16.9905 

18.8783 

.69 

2.8911 

3.8.593 

5.7889 

7.7185 

9.6181 

11.. 5778 

13.. 5071 

15.1370 

17.3667 

19.2963 

.70 

2.9.576 

3.91.35 

5.9152 

7.8869 

9.8.586 

11.8301 

13.8021 

15.7738 

17.71.56 

19.7173 

.71 

3.0212 

1.0283 

6.0121 

8 . 0565 

10.0706 

12.0818 

11.0989 

16.11,30 

18.1272 

20.1113 

70 

3.08.52 

1.11.37 

6.1705 

8.2273 

10.2812 

12.. 3110 

11.3978 

16.1.517 

18,. 51 15 

20.. 5683 

.73 

3.1197 

1.1997 

6.2995 

8.3993 

10.1992 

12.5990 

11.6988 

16.7989 

18.8985 

20.9983 

.71 

3.2117 

1.2863 

6.1291 

8., 5725 

10.71.56 

12.8.588 

15.0019 

17.11.50 

19.2881 

21.1.313 

7. A 

3.2801 

1.37.31 

6.5601 

8.7169 

10.9.336 

13.1203 

15., 3070 

17.1937 

19.6801 

21.8671 

.76 

1.1612 

6.6918 

8.9221 

11.1.5,30 

13.3836 

15  6112 

17.8117 

20.07.53 

22.30.59 

77 

1..519.5 

6.8213 

9.0991 

11.. 3728 

13.6186 

15.92.33 

18. 1981 

20.1729 

22.7176 

.78 

1.6381 

6.9577 

9.2769 

11.5961 

13.9153 

16.2315 

18.. 5.538 

20.8730 

23.1922 

.79 

1.7279 

7.0919 

9.15.59 

11.8198 

11.1838 

16., 5177 

1 18.9117 

21.2757 

23.6.396 

.80 

1.8180 

7.2270 

9.6360 

12.01.50 

11.1.539 

16.8629 

19.2719 

2 '.6809 

21.0899 

.81 

1.9086 

7.3629 

9.8172 

12.2715 

11.72.58 

17.1801 

19.6311 

22.0887 

21.. 5130- 

.82 

1.9998 

7.1997 

9.9996 

12.1995 

11.9993 

17.1992 

19.9991 

22.1990 

21.9989 

.83 

5.0915 

7.6.373 

10.1830 

12.7288 

15  2716 

17.8202 

20.3661 

22.9118 

25.1.576 

.81 

5.1838 

7.77,57 

10.3676 

12.9.595 

15.. 55 11 

18.1133 

20.7.352 

23.3271 

25.9191 

.85 

5.2767 

7.91.50 

10., 5.5.33 

13.1916 

15.8300 

18.1683 

21.1066 

23.7119 

26.-38.33 

.86 

5.3700 

8.0,5.51 

10.7101 

13.1251 

16.1101 

18.7952 

21.1802 

21. '652 

26.8.502 

.87 

5.1610 

7.1960 

10.9280 

13.6.599 

16.. 391 9 

19.1239 

21.8,5,59 

21., 5879 

27.,319& 

.88 

5 . 5585 

8.3377 

11.1169 

13.8961 

16.6751 

19.1.516 

22.2338 

2.5.0131 

27.7923 

.89 

5 . 6535 

8.1802 

11.3069 

11.1.337 

16.9601 

19.7872 

22.61,39 

25.1106 

28.2671 

.90 

5.7190 

8.62.35 

11.1980 

11.3726 

17.2170 

20.1216 

22.9961 

25.8706 

28.71.51 

.91 

5.8151 

8.7677 

11.6902 

11.6128 

17.. 5.3,53 

20.1.579 

23.3801 

26.3030 

29.2255. 

.92 

5.9117 

8.9126 

11.8831 

11.8.513 

17.8251 

20.7960 

23.7669 

26.7377 

29.7086 

.93 

6.0389 

9.0,583 

12.0777 

15.0971 

18.1166 

21.1360 

21.1.5.51 

27.1718 

30.1913 

.91 

6.1.365 

9.2018 

12. 27.30 

15.3113 

18.1096 

21.1778 

21., 5161 

27.6113 

30.6826 

.95 

6.2.317 

9.3520 

12.1691 

15.5867 

18.7011 

21  8211 

21.9.388 

28.0.561 

.31.17.3,5 

.96 

6.3331 

9.. 5001 

12.6668 

]. 5. 83.35 

19.0002 

22.1669 

25., 3.3,36 

28.. 5003 

.31.6670 

.97 

6.1326 

9.6189 

12. 86.52 

16.0815 

19.2979 

22., 5112 

26.7,305 

28.9168 

32.16,31 

.98 

6.5323 

9.7985 

13.0617 

16.. 3.309 

19., 5970 

22.8632 

26.1291 

29.39,56 

,32.6617 

.99 

6.6.326 

9.9189 

13.2652 

16. 58)5 

19.8978 

23.2111 

26.5.303 

29.8167 

33.1629 

1.00 

6.7333 

10.1000 

13.1667 

16.8333 

20.2000 

23.5667 

26.9,3.33 

30.3000 

33.6667 

1 01 

20  50.38 

2,3.9211 

27  3,381 

30  75.56 

31  1729 

1^02 

20^8090 

21,2772 

27hl.51 

3U213.5 

,31.6817 

1.03 

21.  i 1.58 

21!  6,351 

28  1 511 

31.6737 

35 . 19,30 

1^01 

21.1210 

21.9917 

28 ! 5651 

32^361 

35 . 7067 

1.05 

2 1 . 7,338 

25^3561 

28^9781 

32 ! 6007 

36 . 22,30 

1.06 

22.01,50 

25  hi  92 

29 ! 393,3 

33! 0675 

36.7117 

1.07 

22., 3577 

26.0810 

29^103 

,33., 5,365 

,37.2628 

1 08 

22  6719 

26  1505 

30  “^“^Ol 

31  0078 

,37  7861 

1^09 

22.9875 

26^187 

30 '.6199 

31.1812 

38., 31 21 

1.10 

23.3015 

27.1886 

31 .0727 

,31.9.568 

38.8109 

1 11 

2,3  6230 

27  ,5602 

31  1971 

35  1316 

,39.3717 

1.12 

23.91.30 

27.9.3,35 

31.9210 

35.9115 

.39.90,50 

1 13 

21.2611 

28 . ,3081 

,32 . ,3525 

36  3965 

10  1106 

1 11 

21., 5872 

28  68.50 

32  7829 

36.8808 

10.9786 

1.15 

21.9111 

29.06,33 

33.21,52 

,37.3671 

11.5190 

1.16 

25.2370 

29.11,32 

,3,3.6191 

37  85,56 

12.0617 

1.17 

25.. 5611 

29.8218 

31.08.51 

38.3161 

42.6068 

1.18 

, 

25.8925 

,30.2079 

31.. 52.31 

38.8388 

13.1.512 

1.19 

26.2221 

,30.. 5928 

,31.9631 

39.3,335 

13.7039 

1.20 

26.5536 

,30.9792 

35.1018 

39.8301 

44.2.560 

1.21 

.3  r. 3672 

,35.8183 

10.3293 

11.8103 

1 22 

31.7,569 

36  2936 

10  8303 

45.3670 

1>23 

,32.1181 

36.7107 

11., 33,33 

45.9259' 

BULLETIN  NO.  35. 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

Experiment  Station 


OF  THE 

AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  OF  flONTANA. 


Report  of  Feeding  Tests. 

BEEF  CATTLE  AND  SHEEP. 


I.  Comparative  Results  from  Feeding  Lambs,  1-year 
Wethers,  2-year  Wethers  and  Aged  Ewes. 

II.  Fattening  Steers  with  Different  Quantities  of  Grain. 


BOZEMAN,  MONTANA,  MAY  I,  1902. 


1902. 

The  Avant  Courier  Publishing  Co., 
Bozeman,  ilontana. 


Hontana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 

STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor  1 

James  Donovan,  Attorney  General  [ex-officio 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction  J 

N.  W.  McConnell 

W.  M.  Johnson 

O.  P.  Chisholm 

J.  F.  McCay... 

G.  T.  Paul....! 

N.  B.  Holter 

J.  M,  Evans '.. 

C.  Leonard 


Helena 

Helena 

....Billings 

.Bozeman 

Hamilton 

Dillon 

Helena 

.Missoula 
Butte 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President Bozeman 

John  M.  Robinson,  Vice  President Bozeman 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary Bozeman 

Joseph  Kountz Bozeman 

E.  B.  Lamme Bozeman 


STATION  STAFF. 

Samuel  Fortier,  Ma.  E Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S Chemist 

Robt.  S.  Shaw,  B.  S.  A Agriculturist 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D Botanist 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc Entomologist 

Postoffice,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 

' All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be 
addressed  to  the  Director, 

Montana  Experiment  Station, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 

Notice! — The  Bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to 
any  citizen  of  Montana  who  sends  Ins  name  and  address  to  the 
Station  for  that  purpose. 


Fattened  by  the  Montana  Experiment  Station,  1902. 


IVRyyETHER 


Fattened  by  the  Montana  Experiment  Station,  1902. 


Montana  Experiment  Station 


Bulletin  No,  35.  = = = = flay  1902. 


BY  R.  S.  SHAW. 

SHEEP  FEEDING. 

COMPARATIVE  TESTS  WITH  LAMBS,  YEARLING 
WETHERS,  TWO-YEAR  WETHERS, 

AND  AGED  EWES. 


The  primary  object  of  this  work  during  the  past  season  was  to 
secure  data  concerning  the  relative  profits  from  feeding  sheep  of 
different  ages  for  market.  In  procuring  this  data  secondary  deter- 
minations were  made  demonstrating  many  practical  requirements 
and  results  in  a comparative  way  along  the  following  lines,  viz: 

(i)  Amount  of  food  required,  per  head,  daily.  (2)  Relation  of 
grain  to  coarse  food  for  sheep  of  different  ages.  (3)  Actual  and 
percentage  gains  in  live  weight.  (4)  Air  dry  food  necessary  per 
pound  increase.  (5)  Relative  cost  of  food  and  increase.  (6)  Rel- 
ative profits.  (7)  Report  of  slaughter  test.  (8)  Shrinkage  in 
transit. 

This  work  was  found  tp  be  necessary  because  of  the  rapidly  in- 
creasing interest  which  is  'being  manifested  throughout  the  state  in 
fitting  sheep  for  market.  Because  of  climatic  conditions  peculiar  to 
the  arid  west  and  the  kind  and  quality  of  its  product,  determinations 
even  of  the  simplest  and  most  practical  character  must  be  made 


I 


AIONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


under  these  local  conditions  to  supply  the  great  demand  for  infor- 
mation. There  has  been  a great  demand  for  data  relating  to  the 
suitability  of  sheep  of  different  ages  for  the  purpose  stated.  In  the 
great  majority  of  cases  it  is  a matter  of  choice  as  to  which  class  shall 
be  used,  for  the  feeding  stocks  are  nearly  all  purchased  by  the  farmer 
from  the  ranges  when  the  feeding  season  begins. 

For  the  purpose  of  these  experiments,  four  lots  consisting  of 
wether  lambs,  yearling  wethers,  two-year  wethers,  and  aged 
ewes  were  purchased  for  the  Station,  in  (3ct.,  1902,  by  J.  M.  Robin- 
son. The  object  in  selection  was  to  secure  animals  presenting  uni- 
formity in  blood  characters  and  the  average  of  IMontana  range  pro- 
duction. These  sheep  were  purchased  by  the  head,  at  the  following 
prices:  Lambs,  $1.62;  yearlings,  $2.50;  two-year-olds,  $2.65;  and 
aged  ewes,  $2.50.  The  average  weights  when  feeding  began  were : 
Lambs,  62.9  lbs. ; yearlings,  94.9  lbs. ; two  years,  115.7  lbs. ; and  ewes, 
91.6  lbs.  The  sheep  had  the  run  of  the  farm  for  a few  days  before 
being  put  on  feed.  The  feeding  period  l)egan  Nov.  22d,  1901,  and 
closed  February  17th,  1902,  thus  extending  over  a period  of  88  days. 
The  same  kinds  'of  food  Avere  used  in  each  case  and  under  similar 
conditions.  The  four  lots  were  fed  in  yards,  side  by  side,  using  racks 
for  the  hay  and  troughs  for  grain.  The  sheep  had  constant  access  to 
sheds  and  water  which  ran  tlirough  the  yards.  (Jwing  to  the  peculiar- 
ly favorable  climatic  conditions,  the  sheds  were  not  used  by  the 
sheep  more  than  a few  days  when  the  protection  was  badly  needed! 

Though  it  was  the  original  intention  to  have  fed  lots  of  equal 
numbers  of  55  each,  this  was  not  possible,  owing  to  error  in  cutting 
the  various  bunches  out  from  a large  band.  However,  the  data  here- 
after given  shows  the  difference  was  not  great  and  in  no  way  affects 
the  results.  Some  few  average  individuals  from  each  lot  were 
slaughtered  at  home  for  photographic  purposes.  The  data  through- 
out is  based  on  the  number  which  reached  the  Chicago  market  and 
upon  which  the  slaughter  test  was  reported. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


5 


Total  Food  Consumed  and  Cost  of  Same. 


Feeding  period  began  Nov.  22d,  1901  and  ended  Feb.  17,  1902, 


covering  88  days. 

55  lambs  consumed  9958  lbs.  clover,  @ $5.00  ton $24.89 

55  lambs  consumed  3304  lbs.  barley,  @ 90c  per  cwt 29.73 

Total $54*62 

51  i-yr.  wethers  consumed  16,960  lbs.  clover,  @ $5.00  per  ton.  .$42.40 
51  i-yr.  wethers  consumed  3073  lbs.  barley,  @ 90c  per  cwt.  . . .$27.65 

Total ‘ $70.05 

53  2-yr.  wethers  consumed  1^,905  lbs.  clover,  @ $5.00  per  ton.  .$47.26 

53  2-yr.  wethers  consumed  3195  lbs.  barley,  @ 90c  per  cwt 28.75 

Total $76.01 

53  ewes  consumed  10,904  lbs.  clover,  @ $5.00  per  ton $47.26 

53  ewes  consumed  3195  lbs.  barley,  @ 90c  per  cwt 28.75 

Total $56.01 


The  figures  given  above  represent  the  actual  amounts  of  food  con- 
sumed, the  percentage  of  waste  having  been  deducted.  While  the 
ideal  method  is  to  feed  without  waste,  under  conditions  such  as  these 
it  must  be  taken  into  account  in  making  accurate  determinations. 
Where  such  close  feeding  is  practiced  that  there  is  absolutely  no 
waste,  the  gains  will  be  somewhat  affected  as  the  ration  in  part  be- 
comes forced.  The  coarser  and  less  edible  the  food  the  greater  will 
be  this  loss.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  with  the  quality  of  foods 
which  can  be  produced  in  Montana  when  properly  cured,  the  loss 
should  not  exceed  two  or  three  per  cent. 

In  this  case  the  coarse  food  consisted  of  first  and  second  crop 
clover  hay.  In  general  the  'quality  was  good,  though  a small  amount 
had  discolored  in  the  stack.  It  had  been  cut  in  the  first  stages  of 
bloom. 

The  grain  food  consisted  exclusively  of  Chevalier  barley  and  was 
fed  unground  in  every  case.  While  some  question  has  arisen  as 


6 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


to  whether  better  results  would  have  been  obtained  had  this  grain 
been  ground,  there  was  no  evidence  to  show  that  it  was  not  perfectly 
masticated  and  digested.  The  ewe  mouths  were  examined  and 
found  to  be  in  fairly  good  condition  with  one  exception  only.  A 
combination  of  grains  was  not  used  because  of  the  fact  that  many  of 
our  feeders  will  of  necessity  be  forced  to  use  some  one  kind.  Both 
wheat  and  oats  have  been  used  separately  along  with  clover  in  pre- 
vious tests.  Good  results  have  been  secured  from  all  three,  with  a 
slight  gain  in  favor  of  oats,  with  wheat  and  barley  about  equal  and 
very  close  to  the  oats  in  gains.  The  oats  have  proved  to  be  far  the 
most  expensive  food  of  the  three,  owing  to  local  prices. 


Food  Consumed  Per  Head  Per  Day. 


Lambs. Clover,  2.05  lbs.  Barley,  .68  lbs.  Total,  2.73  lbs. 

1- year  Wethers.  . .Clover,  3.77  lbs.  Barley,  .68  lbs.  Total,  4.45  lbs. 

2- year  Wethers.  . .Clover,  4.05  lbs.  Barley,  .68  lbs.  Total,  4.73  lbs. 

Aged  Ewes Clover,  2.33  lbs.  Barley,  .68  lbs.  Total,  3.01  lbs. 

The  figures  given  above  represent  the  average  daily  consumption 
of  hay  and  grain  and  also  the  average  amount  of  total  dry  matter 
used  per  head  throughout  the  88  days.  In  the  case  of  the  lambs 
the  amount  of  food  actually  consumed  per  head,  per  day^  is  a little 
less  than  we  had  expected.  Lbider  similar  conditions,  in  previous 
tests,  about  three  pounds  has  been  required  for  a daily  ration  and 
the  feeder  should  figure  on  no  less  than  that  amount  in  making  esti- 
mates of  the  food  required  by  large  bands. 


Relation  of  Grain  to  Coarse  Food. 


From  the  foregoing  data  we  find  the  following  relation  to  exist 
between  the  grain  and  the  coarse  food : 

In  Lamb  ration 24  per  cent  consisted  of  grain. 

In  i-year  Wether  ration 15  per  cent  consisted  of  grain. 

In  2-year  Wether  ration 14  per  cent  consisted  of  grain. 

In  Aged  Ewe  ration 22  per  cent  consisted  of  grain. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


7 


This  relation  of  grain  and  coarse  food  (clover)  was  planned  in 
order  to  give  the  four  lots  of  different  ages  a uniform  finish  for  the 
market.  In  the  case  of  the  lambs  the  largest  percentage  of  grain 
was  given,  not  as  being  necessary  to  produce  a large  increase  in 
weight,  but  to  give  the  carcass  fatness ; the  tendency  in  the  lamb 
being  to  an  increase  of  a growthy  nature  rather  than  fat.  The  weth- 
ers, being  practically  mature  sheep,  were  supplied  a smaller  percent- 
age of  grain  as  the  increase  in  live  weight  is  mostly  fat.  It  is  on  this 
basis  that  we  advocate  the  fattening  of  lambs  only,  when  some  grain 
can  be  used,  and  the  selection  of  wethers  where  alfalfa  or  clover  only 
are  available.  The  larger  ration  of  grain  was  furnished  the  ewes  be- 
cause of  poor  condition  and  vitiated  digestive  and  assimilative 
powers. 

Attention  is  especially  called  to  the  results  secured  in  these  experi- 
ments where  grain  forms  less  than  one  quarter  of  the  ration.  It  is 
only  through  the  use  of  legumes  such  as  red  clover,  alsike  and  alfalfa, 
that  such  results  can  be  secured.  Where  carbonaceous  coarse  foods 
such  as  native  hays,  corn  fodder,  sorghum,  etc.,  are  used,  then  the 
grain  must  form  one  half  to  two  thirds  of  the  ration  in  order  to 
secure  equivalent  gains. 


Weights  and  Increase  in  88  Days  from  Food  Fed. 


VARIOUS  LOTS. 

Weight  Nov.  22d,  1902.... 

(1 

> 

< 

S 

Weight  Feb.  17,  1902 

c 

> 

tt 

i-j 

Cc 

% 

Total  Gain 

Gain  Per  Head 

S. 

0 

y 

jpercentage  of  Increase 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

per  ct. 

55  Lambs 

3459 

62.9 

4764 

86.6 

1305 1 

23.7  8.08 

37-7 

51  i-year  Wethers.  .. 

4840 

94.9 

6040 

118.4 

1200 

23.5 1 8.01 

24.7 

53  2-yeaf  Wethers.. 

6133 

II5-7 

7420 

140. 

1287] 

24-3  1 

8.28 

20.9 

53  Aged  Ewes 

4858 

91.6 

5684 

107.2 

826 

15-6 

5-31 

17* 

8 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


The  weights  above  given  were  neither  secured  from  the  animals 
Under  full  feed  nor  yet  under  a shrinkage.  The  practice  followed 
was  to  weigh  from  eight  to  nine  hours  after  the  morning  feed.  The 
weights  were  taken  every  two  weeks  but  owing  to  the  uniformity 
in  these  the  final  results  only  are  reported.  Attention  is  particularly 
called  to  the  column  above  giving  the  percentage  increase  in  live 
weight.  With  the  exception  of  the  ewes  the  gains  per  head  for 
88  days,  as  well  as  the  gains  per  month,  appear  to  be  quite  similar, 
and’  until  presented  in  a way  in  which  comparison  is  made  more 
clear,  the  differences  are  not  so  manifest.  The  percentage  of  in- 
crease added  to  the  original  live  weight  was  as  follows:  Lambs 
37  per  cent,  i-yr.  wethers  24.7  per  cent,  2-yr.  wethers-  20.9  per  cent, 
and  aged  ewes  17  per  cent. 


Amount  of  Air  Dry  Food  Consumed  Per  Pound  Increase  Including 

Maintenance. 


Lambs Dry  food  consumed  per  pound  gain,  10.16  lbs. 

1- yr.  Wethers Dry  food  consumed  per  pound  gain,  16.6  lbs. 

2- yr.  Wethers Dry  food  consumed  per  pound  gain,  17.1  lbs. 

Aged  Ewes Dry  food  consumed  per  pound  gain,  17.5  lbs. 


Owing  to  the  small  proportion  of  grain  in  the  ration,  viz. : .68  fb 
per  head  per  day,  the  total  amount  of  dry  food,  required  to  produce 
a pound  of  gain  is  larger  than  where  more  grain  is  used.  In  previous 
experiments  where  about  one  pound  of  grain  was  used  in  the  daily 
ration  for  lambs,  along  with  clover,  only  8.75  pounds  of  dry  matter 
was  required  to  produce  a pound  of  increase. 

In  the  above,  the  comparison  between  the  lambs  and  ewes  is 
made  on  an  equal  basis,  but  in  the  case  of  the  wethers  the  propor- 
tion of  hay  is  greater,  consequently,  the  amounts  given  for  them 
are  a little  high  in  comparison. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


9 


Relative  Cost  of  Production. 


Lambs Cost  per  lOO  pounds  increase  in  live  weight,  $4.18 

1- yr.  Wethers Cost  per  100  pounds  increase  in  live  weight,  5.83 

2- yr.  Wethers Cost  per  100  pounds  increase  in  live  weight,  5.90 

Aged  Ewes Cost  per  100  pounds  increase  in  live  weight,  6.78 


The  cost  of  production  is  a matter  which  of  course  materially 
affects  the  financial  results.  In  the  figures  given  above  we  find 
one  more  striking  illustration  of  the  fact  that  the  younger  the 
animal  the  less  will  be  the  cost  of  increase  in  live  weight  produced 
by  it.  And  then  in  referring  to  the  sale  statement,  we  find  the  value 
thereby  given  is  in  about  an  inverse  proportion  to  the  age  of  the 
animals. 

Attention  is  called  here  to  the  fact  that  an  accurate  comparison 
can  only  be  made  between  the  lambs  and  ewes,  as  about  the  same 
relationship  existed  in  these  two  cases  between  the  grain  and  coarse 
food.  The  lamb  and  ewe  rations  contained  24  and  22  per  cent  of 
grain  respectively,  while  the  wether  rations  contained  only  14  and 
15  per  cent  of  grain.  As  the  grain,  however,  was  worth  about  i cent 
per  pound  and  the  clover  ^ cent  per  pound,  this  difference  in  price 
would  about  even  things  up  in  the  case  of  the  wethers. 


Per  Capita  Cost  of  Food  Consumed. 


Lambs,  value  of  food  consumed  per  head  during  88  days,  $ .99 

1- yr.  Wethers,  value  of  food  consumed  per  head  during  88  days,  1.37 

2- yr.  Wethers,  value  of  food  consumed  per  head  during  88  days,  1.43 
Aged  Ewes,  .value  of  food  consumed  per  head  during  88  days,  1.05 


10 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Financial  Statement. 


LAMBS. 


Nov.  22,  1901,  To  55  lambs  at  $1.6234  per  head,  . . . .$  89.37 

Feb.  17,  1902,  To  cost  of  feed  for  88  days 54-62 

Feb.  25,  1902,  To  cost  of  shipping 42.96 

Feb.  25,  1902,  By  55  lambs,  4340  lbs.  at  $6.50  per  cwt.  $282.10 

Feb.  25,  1902,  To  net  profit 95-15 


$282.10  $282.10 

1-YEAR  WETHERS. 

Nov.  22,  1901,  To  51  i-yr.  wethers  at  $2.50  per  head.. .$127.50 


Feb.  17,  1902,  To  cost  of  feed  for  88  days 70-05 

Feb.  25,  1902,  To  cost  of  shipping 54-84 

Feb.  25,  1902,  By  51  wethers,  5540  lbs.  at  $5.85  cwt.  $324.09 

Feb.  25,  1902,  To  net  profit 7i-70 


$324.09  $324.09 

2-YEAR  WETHERS. 

Nov.  22,  1901,  To  53  2-yr.  wethers  at  $2.65  per  head.  .$140.45 


Feb.  17,  1902,  To  cost  of  food  for  88  days 76.01 

Feb.  25,  1902,  To  cost  of  shipping 67.30 

Feb.  25,  1902,  By  53  wethers,  6800  lbs.  at  $5.40  cwt.  $367.20 

Feb.  25,  1902,  To  net  profit 83.44 

$367.20  $367.20 

AGED  EWES. 

Nov.  22,  190T,  To  53  ewes  at  $2.50  per  head $132.50 

Feb.  17,  1902,  To  cost  of  food  for  88  days 56.01 

Feb.  25,  1902,  To  cost  of  shipping 49.89 

Feb.  25,  1902,  By  53  ewes,  5040  lbs.  at  $4.75  cwt.  $239.40 

Feb.  25,  1902,  To  net  profit i.oo 

$239.40  $239.40 


In  determining  the  relative  profits  from  each  of  the  four  lots  it 
was  necessary  to  divide  the  expense  of  shipping,  consisting  of  frieght 
charges,  feed,  commission,  etc.  This  was  done  on  the  basis  of 
weights,  as  the  two  most  important  features  of  expense,  freight  and 
feed,  are  in  proportion  to  weight.  Owing  to  stop-overs  for  feeding 
the  expenses  in  this  case  were  considerably  above  the  average, 
which  prevents  onr  profits  from  being  still  larger. 


AlONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


11 


Relative  Profits  From  the  Four  Lots.* 


55  lambs  gave  a net  profit  of  $95.15  or  $1.73  per  head. 

51  i-year  wethers  gave  a net  profit  of  $71. 70. or  $1.40  per  head. 

53  2-year  wethers  gave  a net  profit  of  $83.44  or  $1.57  per  head. 

53  aged  ewes  gave  a net  profit  of  $1.00,  or  1.8  cents  per  head. 

The  figures  given  above  do  not  represent  the  total  profits.  The 
hay  was  charged  up  at  $5  per  ton  and  grain  at  90  cents  per  cwt. 
Both  prices  being  above  cost  of  production,  a secondary  profit  oc- 
curs here  which  is  not  considered  in  the  data.  It  is  the  custom 
in  all  feeding  experiments  to  offset  the  cost  of  labor  by  the  value  of 
the  manue  left  on  the  farm  to  maintain  fertility.  The  greater  profit 
from  the  two-year  wethers  as  compared  with  the  yearlings  is  due 
to  the  purchase  prices.  While  94.9  lb.  yearlings  cost  $2.50,  115.7  lb. 
two  year  olds  were  purchased  at  $2.65. 


Report  of  Slaughter  Test,  by  Swift  & Co.  of  Chicago. 


55  lambs,  average  79  lbs.,  $6.50,  dress  54.2  per  cent. 

51  i-year  wethers,  average  108  lbs.,  $5.85,  dress  52.9  per  cent. 

53  2-year  wethers,  average  128  lbs.,  $5.40,  dress  53.5  per  cent. 

53  ewes,  average  95  lbs.,  $4.75,  dress  50.6  per  cent. 

“We  consider  all  of  these  sheep  and  lambs  a useful  class  of  stock, 
not  too  fat,  and  they  dress  about  2 per  cent  above  the  average  com- 
ing to  the  Chicago  market  at  the  present  time.” 

“The  percentage  of  dressed  weight  is  figured  on  a basis  of  actual 
weight  immediately  after  killing,  shrunk  3 per  cent  , which  is  about 
what  the  mutton  will  shrink  after  hanging  over  night.” 


Shrinkage. 


This  was  determined  from  weights  when  sheep  were  taken  off 
feed  on  February  17th  and  the  weights  given  in  sale  bill  from 
Chicago  February  24th. 


/ 


12  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Lambs  shrunk  7.6  lbs.  or  8.7  per  cent. 

1- year  wethers  shrunk  10.4  lbs.  or  8.7  per  cent. 

2- year  wethers  shrunk  12.  lbs.  or  8.5  per  cent. 

Aged  ewes  shrunk  12.2  lbs.  or  11.3  per  cent. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  interested  in  shipping  and  that  the  figures 
relating-  to  shrinkage  may  be  better  understood,  we  give  the  follow- 
ing detailed  account  of  the  trip,  as  provided  by  Mr.  Robinson,  who 
accompanied  the  shipment.  The  sheep  left  Bozeman  about  noon 
of  the  1 8th  of  February  and  arrived  at  Mandan  on  the  19th 
at  3 p.  m.,  where  they  were  fed  hay  only.  Left  Mandan  at  noon  bn 
20th  and  arrived  in  St.  Paul  at  5:30  a.  m.  21st,  where  the  sheep  re- 
ceived a grain  ration  with  the  hay.  Left  St.  Paul  at  noon  23d  and 
reached  Chicago  at  4 a.  m.  24th.  The  sheep  were  weighed  and  sold 
at  10  a.  m.  The  time  actually  in  transit  was  three  days  and  four 
nights.  Mr  Robinson  suggests  that  it  would  be  of  material  interest 
to  shippers  to  stop  and  feed  at  a point  nearer  Chicago. 


Cost  of  Marketing. 


This  includes  all  expense  of  shipping,  such  as  transportation, 
yardage,  feed,  commission,  etc.  As  before  stated,  these  expenses 
were  divided  in  proportion  to  the  weights  of  the  four  lots  in  determ- 
ining the  relative  profits  from  each,  on  the  basis  that  freight  tariff 
is  the  same  per  pound  and  that  the  food  consumed  while  in  transit 
is  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  animals.  On  this  basis,  we  get 
the  following  relative  cost  of  marketing: 

55  lambs,  weight  4340  lbs.,  cost  of  marketing  $42.96,  cost  per 
head,  $ .78. 

51  i-year  wethers,  weight  5540  lbs.,  cost  of  marketing  $54.84,  cost 
per  head,  $1.07. 

53  2-year  wethers,  weight  6800  lbs.,  cost  of  marketing  $67.30,  cost 
per  head,  $1.27. 

53  ewes,  weight  5040  lbs.,  cost  of  marketing  $49.89,  cost  per 
head  $ .94. 

Average  cost  per  head,  $i.ot. 


AIONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


13 


The  shipper  will  be  safe  in  accepting  the  above,  data  as  regards 
the  cost  of  marketing,  as  in  this  instance,  the  expenses  are  a trifle 
above  normal.  This  is  due  to  the  necessity  of  holding  over  in  St. 
Paid  for  two  and  one-half  days  in  order  to  complete  the  trip  with  a 
special  stock  train.  In  this  case  the  expense  of  marketing  was 
practically  one  cent  per  pound  with  the  various  classes. 


Summary  of  Facts. 


(1) .  The  feeding  of  lambs  for  market  is  more  profitable  than 
wethers  or  ewes,  providing  the  ration  is  so  adjusted  as  to  give  their 
rapid  increase  a finish. 

(2) .  Owing  to  the  growthy  tendency  of  the  lamb,  its  ration  must 
possess  more  fat  producing  material  than  the  mature  sheep. 

(3) .  Where  grain  is  not  available,  the  mature  wether,  though 
making  a smaller  proportionate  increase,  will  fatten  more  readily 
than  the  lamb  on  clover  or  alfalfa  alone.  The  use  of  from 
one  half  to  three  quarters  of  a pound  of  grain,  along  with  clover 
or  alfalfa,  throughout  a period  of  from  70  to  90  days,  is  necessary  to 
produce  a proper  finish  for  shipping. 

(4) .  For  lambs,  yearling  and  two  year  wethers  and  aged  ewes, 
the  following  amounts  of  food  were  consumed  per  head,  per  day, 
viz:  2.73  lbs.,  4.45  lbs.,  4.73  lbs.,  and  3.01  lbs.  Attention  is  called  to 
the  fact  that  the  amount  consumed  by  the  lambs  is  small,  due  to  their 
light  weights. 

(5) .  In  order  to  secure  an  even  finish,  the  grain  fed  formed  the 
following  percentages  of  the  ration,  viz:  For  lambs  24  per  cent., 
i-year  wethers  15  per  cent  , 2-year  wethers  14  per  cent.,  aged  ewes 
22  per  cenf. 

(6) .  The  relative  increase  in  live  weight  is  represented  in  the 

following  percentages:  For  lambs  37.7  per  cent.  i-year  wethers 

24.7  per  cent,  2-year  wethers  20.9  per  cent,  ewes  17  per  cent. 

(7) .  The  following  amounts  of  air  dry  food  were  required  for 
maintenance  and  per  pound  increase,  viz:  Lambs  10.16  lbs.,  i-year 
wethers  16.6  lbs.,  2-year  wethers  17  lbs.  and  ewes  17.5  lbs.  As  here- 


14 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


tofore  explained,  this  comparison  applies  properly  to  lambs  and 
ewes  only,  owing  to  difference  in  the  proportionate  make  up  of  the 
wether  rations. 

(8) .  Relative  costs  of  production  per  loo  lbs.  increase:  Lambs 
^4.18,  i-year  wethers  $5.83,  2-year  wethers  $5.90,  aged  ewes  $6.78. 

(9) .  Per  capita  cost  of  food  consumed  during  88  days:  Lambs 

99c,  i-year  wethers  $1.37,  2-year  wethers  $1.43,  ewes  $1.05.  ^ 

(10) .  Relative  profits  per  capita  from  the  four  lots : Lambs 
Si. 73,  I-year  wethers  $1.40,  2-yearvwethers  $1.57,  aged  ewes  1.8  cents. 

(11) .  Percentage  of  dressed  carcass  after  deducting  3 per  cent 
from  same:  Lambs  54.2  per  cent  , i-year  wethers  52.9  per  cent  , 2- 
year  wethers  53.6  per  cent  , ewes  50.6  per  cent. 

(12) .  Shrinkage  in  transit,  covering  1400  miles,  determined  from 
weights  while  on  full  feed  and  those  of  sale : Lambs  8.7  per  cent., 
I-year  wethers  8.7  per  cent  , 2-year  wethers  8.5  per  cent.,  ewes  11.3 
per  cent. 

(13) .  The  suggestion,  resulting  from  personal  experience,  is 
offered  to  the  effect  that  sheep  will  withstand  shipping  better  if  kept 
on  a limited  allowance  during  transit,  rather  than  on  full  feed.  But 
that  feed  and  rest  are  essential  toward  the  close  of  trip. 

(14) .  The  total  net  profit  from  the  car  of  mixed  sheep  was 

$251.29. 

(15) .  Even  though  the  cost  of  marketing  is  a large  item,  still, 
this  is  offset  by  cheap  feeders  and  an  abundance  of  cheap  food  of 
good  quality  which  renders  the  feeding  business  a profitable  Indus- 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


15 


PART  II. 


CATTLE  FEEDING. 


The  objects  sought  in  this  work  were  to  determine  the  relative 
results  from  feeding  light,  medium  and  heavy  grain  rations  in  con- 
junction with  legumes  for  fattening  purposes.  Though  similar 
work  has  been  done  along  these  same  lines  in  other  portions  of  the 
country,  still,  it  was  thought  best  to  repeat  it  here  owing  to  the 
marked  difference  in  the  quality  of  Montana  grown  food  stuffs. 
Figures  were  also  sought  to  support  previous  assertions  of  the  fact 
that  only  a minimum  amount  of  grain  is  necessary  along  with  our 
legumes  to  produce  a good  quality  of  beef  or  mutton. 

For  the  purpose  of  this  experiment  twenty-two  2-year  old  steers 
were  purchased  by  Mr.  Jos.  Kountz.  These  animals  were  grades 
showing  Shorthorn  blood  and  were  growthy  but  thin  and  in  a condi- 
tion to  put  on  flesh  rapidly  as  the  figures  show.  They  were  about 
the  average  of  range  production. 

The  feeding  period  was  divided  into  three  parts,  viz;  preliminary 
test  and  final.  The  preliminary  period  of  twenty  four  days  extend- 
ing from  Dec.  9th,  1901  to  Jan.  3d,  1902,  was  necessary  in  order  to  get 
the  animals  all  under  full  feed  after  the  operation  of  dehorning.  The 
trial  test  proper  was  a short  one  extending  from  Jan.  3d  to  Mar. 
28th,  a period  of  eighty  five  days.  In  the  final  the  animals  were 
merely  kept  on  feed  till  April  12th  when  they  were  disposed  of. 

■ The  feeding  was  done  in  open  yards  with  sheds  provided  for 
shelter  and  with  constant  access  to  water.  The  sheds  were  used 
at  night  almost  continually  while  in  the  case  of  the  sheep  very  sel- 
dom. In  general  the  weather  was  a little  too  mild  during  the  test 
proper.  The  yards  thawed  out  nearly  every  day.  The  best  condi- 
tions seem  to  be  when  the  thermometer  does  not  rise  above  32 
■degrees  during  the  day. 


16 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Food  Consumed  by  Three  Lots  and  Cost  of  Same. 


LOT  I.  7 STEERS. 

Clover  fed  Jan.  2d  to  Mar.  28th,  11,540  lbs.  at  $5  per  ton $28.85 

Barley  meal  fed  Jan.  2d  to  Mar  28th,  2975  lbs.  at  90c  per  cwt.  26.77 

Total $55-62 

LOT  II.  7 STEERS. 

Clover  fed  Jan.  2d  to  Mar.  28th,  11,560  lbs.  at  $5  per  ton v$28.95 

Barley  meal  fed  Jan.  2d  to  Mar.  28th,  4008  lbs.  at  90c  per  cwt. 36.07 

Total $65.02 

LOT  III.  8 STEERS. 

Clover  fed  Jan.  2d  to  Mar.  28th,  13,500  lbs.  at  $5  per  ton $33-75 

Barley  fed  Jan.  2d  to  Mar.  28th,  6057  lbs.  at  90c  per  cwt..  . .$54.51 
Total $88.26 


The  clover  hay  was  fed  twice  each  day  in  racks  so  constructed 
that  there  was  no  w^aste.  The  barley  was  ground  and  the  meal  fed 
in  flat  troughs  raised  about  three  feet  above  the  ground. 


Average  Amount  of  Food  Consumed  per  Day. 


Lot  I.  Clover  consumed  per  head  per  day 19.3  lbs. 

Lot  I.  Barley  meal  consumed  per  head,  per  day 5.  lbs. 

Total 24.3  lbs. 

Lot  II.  Clover  consumed  per  head  per  day 19.4  lbs. 

Lot  II.  Barley  meal  consumed  per  head  per  day 6.73  lbs. 

Total 26.13  lbs- 

Lot  111.  Clover  consumed  per  head  per  day 19.8  lbs. 

Lot  [II.  Barley  meal  consumed  per  head  per  day 8.9  lbs. 

Total 28.7  lbs. 


Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  the  amounts  of  clover  consum- 
ed daily  are  about  the  same  for  the  three  lots,  even  though  the 
amount  of  grain  increased  from  lot  1.  up.  The  fact  that  more  food 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


17 


was  required  even  where  more  grain  was  fed  is  due  to  the  greater 
weights  of  lots  11.  and  III.  The  division  was  made  on  a basis 
of  quality  rather  than  weight.  The  aim  being  to  have  the  steers 
of  the  different  lots  as  even  in  quality  as  possible. 


Preliminary  Weights  and  Effect  of  Dehorning. 


22  steers,  weight  Dec.  9th,  1901,  22185  lbs.,  average  1008. 

22  steers,  weight  Jan.  2d,  1902,  23170  lbs.,  average  1053. 

Average  gain  during  period  of  twenty  four  days  45  lbs. 

Gain  per  head  per  day  during  period  of  24  days,  1.87  lbs. 

Gain  per  head  per  day  during  period  of  85  days,  2.27  lbs. 

The  figures  relating  to  weights  secured  during  the  preliminary 
period  show  that  dehorning  had  little  effect  on  the  steers.  The 
average  daily  gains  are  some  smaller,  which  is  partly  due  to  the  fact 
that  less  grain  was  fed  than  in  the  next  period.  These  animals  fed 
heartily  immediately  after  the  operation. 


Test  Weights,  for  85  Day  Period. 


VARIOUS  LOTS. 

Weight  Jan.  2d,  1902. 

Average 

Weight  Mar.  28,1902. 

Average 

1 

Total  Increase 

Increase  per  head 

Increase  per  day 

Per  cent  increase 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Per  ct . 

Lor  i,  7 Steers  . . 

6850 

978.5  1 

8240 

i ^ ^ 77 

1390 

198..^ 

1 2-33  1 

20.2 

Lot  II,  7 Steers.  . . 

7240 

1034.3 

1 8590 

1227 

1350 

192.8 

1 2.26 

18.6 

Lot  III,  8 Steers. . 

9080 

1135-  1 

10600 

1325 

1520 

190. 

1 2-23 

16.7 

Food  Per  Head  Per  Day  per  100  lbs.  Live  Weight. 


Pen  I.  Average  1077  lbs.  barley  per  cwt.  .46  lbs.  clover  1.79  lbs. 

Pen  II.  Average  1130  lbs.  barley  per  cwt.  .59  lbs.  clover  1.71  lbs. 

Pen  III.  Average  1230  lbs.  barley  per  cwt.  .72  lbs.  clover  1.61  lbs. 


18 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


The  results  indicate  that  where  legumes  are  used  as  roughage, 
not  more  than  one-half  pound  of  meal  per  loo  lbs.  live  weight,  per 
day,  is  necessary  to  produce  satisfactory  gains  and  at  the  smallest 
cost.  This  is  true  only,  however,  of  perfectly  cured  and  preserved 
clover  and  alfalfa,  such  as  are  produced  in  the  arid  west. 


Solid  Food  per  lb.  Increase. 

Lot.  I.  Food  per  pound  increase,  10.4  lbs. 

Lot.  II.  Food  per  pound  increase,  11.5  lbs. 

Lot.  III.  Food  per  pound  increase,  12.9  lbs. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  these  figures  include  mainten- 

ance during  the  time  each  pound  was  being  produced  and  that  owing 
to  differences  in  live  weight  these  figures  would  be  affected  accord- 
ingly. 


Cost  Per  Pound  Increase. 


Pen  No.  I.  Cost  per  cwt.  increase,  $4.00 

Pen  No.  11.  Cost  per  cwt.  increase,  $4.81 

Pen  No.  III.  Cost  per  cwt.  increase,  $5.80 


Financial  Statement. 


Jan.  2d,  1902 — By  clover,  first  period,  14,295  lbs.  at  $5  per  ton..$  35.73 
Jan.  2d,  1902 — By  barley,  first  period,  1141  lbs.  at  90c  cwt..  . . 10.26 

Mar.  28,  1902 — By  clover,  test  period,  36,600  lbs.  at  $5  per  ton . 91.50 

Alar.  28,  1902 — By  barley,  test  period,  13,040  lbs.  at  90c  cwt.  . . 117.35 
Apr.  12,  1902 — By  clover,  third  period,  6435  lbs.  at  $5  per  ton ..  16.08 

Apr.  12,  1902 — By  barley,  third  period,  2267  lbs.  at  90c  cwt. . . 20.4c 


Dec.  9,  1901 — By  20  steers,  at  $33.00  per  head 660.OG 

Dec.  9,  1901 — By  2 steers,  at  $34.00  per  head 68.00 

Apr.  15,  1902 — By  net  profit  on  22  steers 168.68 

$1188.00 

Apr.  15,  1902,  To  22  steers  at  $54.00  per  head $1188.00 

Net  profit  per  head $7.66 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


19 


This  sum  does  not  represent  the  complete  profit  from  each  animal 
as  the  food  is  charged  up  at  local  market  prices  and  is  much  above 
cost. 

The  carload  of  steers  was  purchased  by  Mr.  Jno.  Kiefer  of  Boze- 
man, by  whom  the  carcasses  shown  in  the  illustrations  were  prepar- 
ed for  photographing. 


Conclusions. 


(1) .  Because  of  the  quality  of  Montana  grown  food  products 
and  the  favorable  climatic  conditions  during  the  winter  feeding 
period,  maximum  returns  can  be  secured  from  a minimum  amount  of 
food. 

(2) .  That  in  fattening  steers,  when  alfalfa  and  clover  are  used, 
not  more  than  one-half  pound  of  grain  to  the  hundred  weight  of  live 
weight  is  necessary  to  produce  the  most  satisfactory  results. 

(3) .  Contrary  to  local  impressions,  some  grain  must  be  used 
throughout  a period  not  less  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  days  in 
order  to  get  a good  finish. 


Acknowledgments. 


The  report  of  slaughter  test  so  kindly  furnished  by  the  Messrs. 
Swift  & Co.  of  Chicago  has  been  of  great  service,  not  only  because 
of  the  information  furnished  by  it,  but  also  from  additional  data 
which  could  only  be  secured  through  its  aid. 

Much  of  the  success  of  this  work  is  due  Mr.  G.  M.  Fuller  under 
whose  supervision  the  experiments  were  conducted. 


^ ^ library 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  of  ILLINOIS 


BULLETIN  NO.  36, 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

Experiment  Station, 

■w  OF  THE ^ 

Ag(ric\ilt\iral  Colleg»e  of  Montana. 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS 

OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA. 


Bozeman,  Montana,  June,  1902. 


REPUBLICAN. 
Bozeman,  Montana, 
1902. 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

BOZEMAN,  = MONTANA. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 

Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor,  \ 

James  Donovan,  Attorney- General,  ^Ex-Officio Helena. 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  ) 

J.  M.  Evans, Missoula. 

C.  D.  Leonard Butte. 

N.  W.  McConnell Helena. 

O.  F.  Goddard Billings. 

O.  P.  Chisholm Bozeman. 

J.  G.  McKay Hamilton. 

G.  T.  Paul Dillon. 

N.  B.  Holter Helena. 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 

Walter  S.  Hartman,  President Bozeman. 

J.  M.  Robinson,  Vice  President Bozeman. 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary Bozeman. 

Joseph  Kountz Bozeman. 

E.  B.  Lamme Bozeman. 


STATION  STAFF. 

Samuel  Fortier,  Ma,  E Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer. 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S Chemist. 

Robt.  S.  Shaw,  B.  S.  A Agriculturist. 

J.  W.  Blank]  NSHiP,  Ph.  D Botanist. 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc Entomologist. 


PostofRce,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be  addressed  to  the 
Director. 

MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

Bozeman,  Montana. 


NOTICE. — The  Bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to  any  citizen  of 
Montana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the  Station  for  that  purpose. 


Montana  Experiment  Station 


BULLETIN  NO.  36.  = = = JUNE,  1902. 


8.  FOKTIER, 

Director  Montana  Agricnltnral  Experiment  Station. 

Dear  Sir: 

The  accompanying  paper  on  the  “Forage  Conditions  of  Central 
Montana”  is  the  result  of  investigations  made  for  the  Station  by  Mr. 
Frank  A.  Spragg  during  1900  and  1901,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Dotanical  department  of  the  Montana  College  of  Agriculture  and  lore- 
sented  as  his  thesis  on  graduation  from  the  Agricultural  Course. 

The  field-work  was  done  in  Fergus  county  and  the  region  immedi- 
ately adjacent,  during  which  nearly  a thousand  specimens  were  col- 
lected for  the  Station  and  many  interesting  facts  regarding  existing 
forage  conditions  in  this  region  have  been  noted.  These  studies  cover 
a portion  of  the  state  not  readily  accessible  from  the  railway  and  hence 
little  studied  by  botanists,  although  one  of  the  most  important  sections 
from  its  stockgrowing  interests. 

Already  the  ranges  in  many  ]Darts  of  the  state  are  showing  signs  of 
exhaustion  and  the  number  of  stock  supported  upon  a given  acreage  is 
steadily  diminishing,  while  the  recent  tendency  of  the  stockmen  to  pur- 
chase or  lease  these  ranges  for  private  use,  tends  to  make  questions  as 
to  their  improvement  and  rendering  them  more  productive  of  increasing 
importance.  But  before  any  systematic  attempjt  can  be  made,  it  is 
necessary  to  determine  the  results  of  close-pasturage  upon  the  ranges, 
the  conditions  formerly  existing  and  those  now^  found,  as  well  as  the 
various  species  of  grasses,  which  form  the  component  parts  of  these 
ranges,  those  found  most  hardy  under  pasturage  and  the 
most  drouth  resisting  in  dry  seasons  with  their  relative  value  for  hay 
and  pasturage.  It  is  with  these  preliminary  studies  of  the  region  in 
question  that  Mr.  Spragg  deals  and  his  paper  appears  to  be  of  suffi- 
cient importants  to  warrant  its  publication  as  a bulletin  of  this  Station. 

Mr.  Spragg  has  also  added  a synopsis  of  all  the  genera  of  grasses 
found  in  the  state  by  which  beginners  in  this  difficult  order  will  be  able 


4 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


to  work  with  more  certainty  in  the  determination  of  the  different  gToni)s 
than  with  any  of  the  schemes  now  available.  It  may  be  well  to  state 
that  the  collections  upon  which  these  notes  are  based  have  been  com- 
pared by  Mr.  Spragg  with  specimens  in  onr  Station  Herbarum,  named 
by  Dr.  F.  L.  Scribner,  while  the  more  difficult  species  have  been  sent 
to  the  Division  of  Agrostology  at  Washington  for  determination. 

R.  S.  Shaw,  Agricnltnrist. 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Botanist. 


Bozeman,  Montana,  June  14,  1902. 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA. 


BY  FRANK  A.  SPRAGG. 


Geology  and  Physiography  of  the  Region. 

The  portion  of  the  country  lyin^  between  the  Missouri,  Smith  and 
Musselshell  rivers  is  traversed  by  the  Little  Belt,  Big  Snowy,  Judith, 
and  Highwood  mountains.  It  includes  a great  variety  of  conditions 
and  fosters  many  industries,  of  which  stock-raising  is  the  i^rincipal, 
and  large  numbers  of  fat  cattle  and  sheep  are  yearly  shipped  to  eastern 
markets.  Large  quantities  of  wool  are  sold  in  the  markets  of  Billings 
and  Great  Falls,  or  shipped  east,  and  lately  there  has  been  a good 
demand  for  horses.  The  mountains  are  celebrated  for  mines  of  gold, 
silver  and  sapphires,  and  at  their  base  arefonnd  limestone,  gypsum  and 
coal.  Montana  also  has  a belt  of  artesian  water,  due  to  the  following 
conditions:  running  across  the  country,  we  have  the  outcrop  of  the 
coal  seam  of  the  Cascade  geologic  formation;  this  line  of  exposure 
crosses  Sun  river  near  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and,  swinging 
eastward,  follows  near  the  north  edge  of  the  Little  Belt  mountains, 
several  miles  south  of  Great  Falls.  At  Sand  Coulee  and  at  Belt  it 
presents  vast  workable  seams  of  coal;  continuing  eastward,  it  follows 
Otter  creek  some  fifteen  miles,  and  crosses  Arrow  creek  near  its  head; 
it  then  crosses  Wolf  creek  four  miles  above  Stanford,  and  the  Judith 
river  at  Utica  ; running  thence  north  of  the  Snowy  mountains,  it  passes 
above  Lewistown  and  around  the  west,  north  and  east  foot  of  the 
Judith  mountains..  Along  this  line  of  exposure  are  numerous  coal 
mines  furnishing  the  country  with  its  total  supply.  This  outcrop  is 


6. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


but  the  edge  of  one  of  many  layers  lapping  against  the  mountains. 
Some  of  these  layers  are  composed  of  clay  and  will  not  allow  water  to 
passthrough;  others  are  so  loose  and  porous  that  large  quantities  of 
water  disappear  yearly  along  the  foot  of  the  mountains  above  the  coal 
seam.  A remarkable  example  of  this  is  Dry  Wolf  creek,  southwest  of 
Stanford.  Up  in  the  mountains  there  is  a swift  stream  about  a rod  in 
width  in  a bed  of  clay  and  gravel;  at  the  mouth  of  the  canyon  this- 
stream  reaches  the  edge  of  a mass  of  loose,  broken  limestone;  within 
two  miles  the  entire  stream  has  disappeared,  and  from  there  to  its 
mouth,  except  in  time  of  melting  snow,  the  stream  bed  is  but  a mass 
of  loose,  dry  gravel.  Along  the  Snowies,  and  particularly  around  the 
Judith  mountains,  the  larger  portion  of  the  water  falling  as  rain  and 
snow  sinks  in  this  way.  Where  does  all  this  water  go?  Again,  what 
are  the  Giant  sx^rings  at  Great  Falls,  and  Big  and  Warm  Springs  in 
the  east  side  of  the  Judith  basin,  if  they  do  not  have  artesian  sources? 
It  is  very  noticeable,  as  one  examines  these  springs,  that  the  rocks 
around  appear  to  have  been  shaken  apart.  One  will  notice  a dark 
opening  here  and  there  with  long  strings  of  vegetation  floating  over, 
and  a short  distance  Jown  stream  a big  roll  in  the  water  may  be 
noticed,  showing  that  large  quantities  of  water  are  flowing  out. 

Within  a year  previous  to  September  I,  1901,  some  half  dozen 
artesian  wells  had  been  bored  in  the  west  side  of  the  Judith  basin  and 
just  below  the  outcrop  of  the  coal.  At  Utica  the  water  is  spouting 
about  eighteen  inches  above  the  opening  of  a three-inch  pipe. 
Another  company  was  boring  a six-inch  hole  at  Mr.  B.  E.  Stack’s 
ranch  on  Willow  creek  Sept.  1;  they  were  then  down  165  feet;  they 
struck  about  ten  barrels  an  hour  at  257  feet,  and  bored  to  317  feet. 
A good  flow  is  expected  at  500  feet,  where  they  expect  to  finish  the 
well.  It  is  said  that  water  wns  struck  atUtica  at  200  feet,  though 
the  w’ell  is  now  800  feet  deep,  and  on  Sage  creek  at  80  feet,  though 
the  w’ell  is  893  feet  deep.  There  is  no  reason  wdiy  artesian  water  could 
not  be  found  anywAiere  in  the  ojaen  country  below  the  line  of  coal; 
there  is  but  one  difficulty  presented.  The  amount  of  material  piled 
on  the  top  of  the  coal  increases  rapidly  as  one  goes  away  from  the 
mountains;  on  the  Benton  stage  road  atArrow  creek,  this  mass  is 
probably  1,500  feet  thick,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Judith  at  least 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA.  7. 


2,500  feet.  The  greatest  depth  the  machine  could  bore,  which  was  at 
Mr.  B.  E.  Stack’s  Sept  4,  was  800  feet. 

The  soil  in  the  mountain  parks  is  usually  deep,  mellow  and  rich, 
belonging  to  the  Cambrian  formation.  Around  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tains, as  has  been  seen,  we  have  a belt  of  loose  limestone.  The  soil 
is  stony  and  useful  mainly  for  pasture.  Further  out  we  have  stretches 
of  nearly  level  bench  lands.  Portions  are  covered  with  gravel,  sand, 
and  alluvium,  and  only  clay  enough  to  convert  the  whole  into  product- 
ive soils.  This  mass  has  been  left  in  passing  ages  by  streams  as  they 
drifted  from  place  to  place  over  this  comparatively  level  country.  The 
benches  of  the  northern  portion  of  this  district  are  covered  with  clay, 
sand,  polished  pebbles,  and  some  boulders.  This  glacial  drift  was  left 
when  the  northern  transcontinental  ice  sheet  melted  away.  As  a rule 
this  drift  contains  less  plant  food  than  the  bench  gravels.  Along  the 
Missouri  river,  we  find  sharp  gorges  which  have  been  cut  in  recent 
times  through  the  bench  gravels  or  glacial  drift,  exposing  the  clays 
of  the  Cretaceous  below.  These  steep  hillsides,  sandy  points,  and 
stretches  of  worthless  clays  make  up  the  badlands.  These  badband 
soils  are  low  in  plant  food,  rich  in  alkali,  and  next  to  worthless  for  cul- 
tivation. However,  in  the  larger  bottoms  along  the  Missouri,  crops  of 
hay,  grain  and  vegetables  are  often  raised. 

The  Natural  Plant  Formations. 

The  grasses  of  Central  Alontana  may  be  grouped,  depending  upon 
soil,  moisture  and  situation,  into  six  different,  though  intergrading, 
plant  formations.  These  ere:  The  Badlands,  Alkali  Flats,  Prairie 
Benches,  Wet  Meadows,  Foot-hills  and  Mountain  Parks. 

In  the  Badlands  where  the  hills  are  rounded  or  flat-topped,  we 
are  apt  to  find  the  regular  bench  flora;  but  on  the  true  side  hill  of  this 
region,  we  find  a scattering  flora  of  salt- grass  (distichlis  spicata), 
June-grass  (Kceleria  cristata),  feather-grass  (Stipa  viridula),  and 
here  and  there  a bunch  of  blue-joint,  (Agropyron  occidentale),  on 
the  better  soil.  On  sandy  points,  putting  down  from  the  main  hill, 
we  find  sand  rush-grass  (Sporobolus  cryptandrus),  prairie  rush-grass 
(Sporobolus  brevifolius),  and  Indian  millet  (Ericoma  cuspidata) 


8. 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


usually.  In  little  bottoms  and  ridges  between  the  main  hill  and  the 
fiats  below,  made  up  principally  of  sandy  drift  from  the  hillside,  out 
of  which  most  of  the  alkali  has  been  washed,  may  be  found  a rich 
sod  of  blue  grama  (Bouteloua  oligostachya).  The  two  little  pests, 
slender  fescue  (Festuca  octofloea),  and  little  barley  (Hoedeum  pusil- 
lum),  are  often  found  here  in  clusters  mixed  with  the  blue  grama. 

The  Alkali  Flats,  though  often  occurring  in  the  Badlands,  are 
commonly  found  in  the  open  country.  They  are  places  where  alkali 
water  collects  and  evaporates.  Portions  of  the  great  sag  south  of  Ben- 
ton are  two  hundred  feet  below  the  surrounding  country.  It  contains 
six  large  lakes  and  several  small  ones;  the  larger  ones  are  surrounded 
by  bare  alkali  coated  flats.  White,  dry  patclres  are  to  be  found 
in  little  sags  quite  generally  over  the  country.  As  we  recede  from  the 
barren  patch,  we  first  find  salt-grass  (Distichlis  spicata),  and  then  by 
degrees  J une  grass  (Kceleeia  ceistata),  and  smooth  bunch  grass  (Poa 
laevigata).  Depending  upon  conditions,  we  may  also  find  rough- 
leaved salt-grass  (Spoeobolus  aspeeifolius),  alkali  meadow  grass 
(PuccTNELLiA  AiEOiDES.),  and  squirrel-tail  grass  (Hoedeum  jubatum). 
In  the  non-alkaline  soil  on  the  edge  of  alkali  places  blue  joint  and 
blue  grama  are  apt  to  be  found,  but  these  grasses  can  withstand  but 
small  quantities  of  alkali. 

The  Prairie  Benches  stretch  from  the  Badlands  and  alkali  flats 
to  the  foothills  of  the  mountains.  They  are  the  drier  upland  i^ortion 
of  the  country,  crossed  by  creek  bottoms  and  dotted  by  wet  meadows, 
the  grasses  of  which  belong  to  a distinct  flora,  and  are ‘usecl  iDrinci- 
i:)ally  for  i^asture.-  The  principal  grasses  of  the  benches  are  blue 
grama  (Bouteloua  oligostachya),  and  blue  joint  (Ageopyeox  occt- 
UEXTALE).  Prairie  June  grass  (Koeleeia  ceistata),  needle  grass 
(Stipa  comata),  bunch  wheat  grass  (Ageopyeox  diveegexs),  and  two 
or  three  meadow  grasses  (Poas)  are  also  found  more  or  less  scattered. 
Around  intermittent  pond  holes  are  found  hair  grasses  (Ageostis  hie- 
MALis)  and  squirrel-tail  grass,  and  floating  foxtail  mixed  with  two  or 
three  sedges  in  the  bottom. 

It  has  been  mentioneil  that  the  meadow  grasses  grow  very  scatter- 
ed on  tliese  benches  to-day,  ^ind  belong  in  large  part  to  what  was  once 


FOKAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA. 


9. 


PoAvTENUiFOLiA.  Prof.  F.  L.  Scribner,  who  saw  the  country  in  the 
summer  of  1883  says,  “Poa  tenuifolia  may  be  regarded  as  the  grass  of 
the  country.  No  species  withstands  the  long  summer  drought  so  well, 
and  it  constitutes  the  chief  forage  upon  the  dry  bench  lands.”  As 
this  grass  is  almost  exterminated  to-day,  it  is  evident  that  it  cannot 
•endure  over-stocking.  A rancher  who  came  to  the  country  shortly 
after  1880,  describes  the  grasses  of  these  benches  then  as  a thick 
mass  of  leaves  shading  the  ground  and  growing  to  a hight  of  six 
to  eight  inches.  He  says  further  that  this  mass  of  leaves  was  inclined 
toward  the  southeast  by  the  northwest  winds.  He  did  not  know  the 
name  of  the  grass,  but  his  description  would  lead  me  to  call  it  blue- 
joint.  To-day  the  blue  grama  (Bouteloua)  is  the  most  abundant  as  a 
mass  of  curl};  leaves  cov^ering  the  ground  but  two  or  three  inches  at 
the  best.  It  is  probable  that  in  former  times,  before  the  ranges  were 
•over-stocked,  that  the  meadow  grasses  (Poas),  blue  joint  and  other 
wheat  grasses,  and  the  prairie  June  grass,  formed  the  greater  part  of 
the  forage,  and  that  the  blue  grama  grew  much  ranker  than  it  does 
now.  In  those  favored  times,  some  old  timers  say  they  could  ride 
across  the  country  with  their  feet  dragging  in  the  grass.  The  grass 
then  fell  to  the  ground  each  fall,  and  was  in  time  transformed  into  a 
mulch,  which  thickened  .year  by  }ear  and  i3rotected  the  ground  from 
the  hot  sun.  Large  quantities  of  moisture  thus  retained  enabled  the 
grass  to  grow  exceedingly  rank.  Perhaps  none  of  the  above  named 
grasses  have  been  exterminated  for  the  lack  of  moisture,  but  on  account 
of  too  close  feeding,  and  the  tramping  of  stock  they  have  been  so 
reduced  in  qu-antity  as  to  .be  almost  absent  in  some  places.  The  blue 
grama,  being  the  last  of  the  grasses  to  succumb  to  the  over-stocking 
process,  has  taken  possession  of  the  soil  as  the  other  grasses  have 
disaiipeared.  The 'difference,  then,  between  the  over-stocked  range  of 
today,  and  the  luxuriant  growths  of  former  times  is  to  be  found  simply 
in  the  relative  abundance  of  the  blue  grama. 

These  prairie  benches  have  proven  themselves  to  be  among  the 
richest  soils  of  the  country.  They  are  similar  to  those  along  the  north 
base  of  the  mountains,  which  will  be  considered  under  the  head  of 
foothills.  The  principal  distinction  is  a slight  difference  in  moisture 
Depending  upon  the  amount  of  moisture  present,  the  foliage  of  these 


10 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


benches  today,  ranges  from  a thick  mass  of  blue-joint  leaves  on  down 
through  all  the  gradations  of  the  grama  sod  to  where  even  this  valu- 
able grass  has  succumbed  to  a “moss”  (Selaginella  nipestris,  Spring.) 
and  desert  conditions  prevail. 

The  Wet  Meadows,  though  characterized  by  almost  totally  dif- 
ferent flora,  grades  into  the  surrounding  formations.  The  grasses  pres- 
ent vary  somewhat  with  conditions  of  soil  and  moisture,  and  depend 
largely  upon  the  presence  or  absence  of  alkali.  Whgn  whaler  stands 
on  the  surface,  we  usually  And  rushes  and  sedges,  or  slough  grass 
(Beckmannia  ekucaefoemis,),  and  reed  meadow  grass  (Paniculaeia 
AMEEICANA,  ),  ill  small  quantity.  If  the  soil  is  wet,  but  not  covered 
with  water,  prairie  rush  grass  (Spoeobolus  beevifolius),  alkali 
meadow  grass  (Puccinellici  airoides),  early  bunch  grass  (Eatonia 
obtusata),  tussock  grass  (Deschampsia  cmspitosa),  cord  grass  (Spartina 
cynosuroides ),  foul  meadow  grass  (Panicularia  nervata),  and  pale  bunch 
grass  grow  in  varying  proportions.  Or,  in  addition  to  the  above  if 
alkali  is  absent,  reed  canary  grass  (Phalaris  arundinacea),  along  the 
banks  of  running  streams.  If  alkali  is  present  in  small  quantity  and 
the  soil  is  not  very  wet,  rough-leaved  salt-grass  (Sporobolus  asperifol- 
ius),  and  especially  prairie  rush  grass  (Sporobolus  brevifolius),  are  apt 
to  be  found  in  large  quantity.  If  the  alkali  is  very  strong  all  the^ 
above  named  grasses  may  be  killed  out  and  only  salt-grass  remain. 

The  region  considered  as  Foothills  here  is  not  necessarily  a strip- 
extending out  in  all  directions  from  the  base  of  the  mountains. 
We  are  considering  the  character  of  a certain  group  of  grasses  that 
may  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  foothill  flora.  The  prairie  bench 
formation  seems  to  extend  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains  on  the  south 
side  of  the  smaller  mountain  ranges  of  the  plains,  while  on  the  north 
side  of  the  same  ranges  are  semi-circular  areas,  the  flora  of  which 
does  not  resemble  that  of  either  ' the  prairie-bench  or  the  mountain- 
imrk  formations.  The  soil,  as  has  been  said,  is  similar  to  that  of  'the- 
dry  benches  but  receives  more  moisture.  The  strip  north  of  the  Little 
Belt  mountains  is  wide  to  connect  them  with  the  High  woods  along 
the  divide  between  the  Arrow  Creek  and  Belt  Creek  basins.  These 
hills  are  today  dotted  by  thrifty  crops  and  meadows.  A few  years 
ago  this  foothill  country  was  used  only  for  pasture,  as  the  dryer 


FOKAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA.  11 


benches  are  today.  On  the  upland  benches  the  sheep-fescue  (Festuca 
ovdna,)  and  red  fescue  (Festuca  rubra)  take  the  place  of  the  blue 
grama  of  the  prairie.  In  nooks  partly  sheltered  by  the  mountains, 
snow-grass  (Festuca  campestris)  is  the  principal  forage.  A large  num- 
ber of  grasses  are  to  be  found  here.  The  hays  are  mainly  the  culti- 
vated and  mountain  timothy;  Bromus  inermis  is  only  just  coming  into 
cultivation.  There  are  several  native  grasses  that  no  doubt  would  do 
well  under  cultivation,  among  which  are  the  wheat  and  brome  grasses, 
or  for  wet  land  the  reed  canary  grass. 

Grasses  are  also  coming  in  on  the  mountain  side  where  the  timber 
has  been  burned  otf  and  the  soil  is  not  too  stony.  The  principal  of  these 
are  the  western  brome  (Bromns  Pumpellianus),  pale  bnnch  grass  (Poa 
lucida)  wood  meadow  grass  (Poa  nemoralis),  downy  oa,t-grass  (Trisetum 
subspicatum)  timothy  (Phleum  pratensis),  and  four  wheat  grasses 
(Agropyron). 

About  forty  different  varieties  of  grasses  are  found  in  the 
Mountain  Parks  of  Central  Montana  between  the  altitudes  of  e5000 
and  7000  feet.  The  loose  deep  rich  soil  is  literally  hilled  with  the  roots 
of  plants  that  probably  bloom  each  and  every  month  during  the  sum- 
mer. The  quantity  of  native  forage  is  usually  no  greater  than  in  the 
foothills  and  many  of  the  grasses  are  similar.  The  hay  grown  here  is 
mainly  timothy  or  oat- hay.  Under  native  conditions  the  land  is  often 
too  rough  to  cut  wild  hay.  It  is  said  that  clover  and  alfalfa  will  not 
do  well.  There  are  some  of  the  native  grasses  that  are  certainly  worthy 
of  trial  and  some  of  these  may  be  found  superior  to  any  of  the  tame 
varieties  for  cultivation  at  high  altitudes  and  in  mountain  parks. 
Among  them  are  mountain  timothy  (Phleum  alpinum),  mountain  fox- 
tail (Alopecurus  occidentalis),  mountain  rye  grass  (Elymus  glaucus), 
slender  wheat  grass  (Agropyron  tenerum),  western  brome  grass  (Bromus 
Pumpellianus),  and  snow^-grass  (Festuca  campestris). 

Economic  Considerations. 

There  are  still  many  problems  to  be  considered  that  relate  either 
directly  or  indirectly  to  the  forage  conditions  of  this  region.  Notably 
among  these  are  the  water  supply,  and  its  most  economic  use  as  well  as 


12 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


the  improvement  of  the  ranges.  Large  quantities  of  water  go  to  waste 
one  way  and  another.  A few  snowbanks  remain  in  the  mountains  to 
supply  water  for  irrigation,  but  most  of  the  water  runs  off  during  the 
spring  break-up  to  deluge  the  people  along  the  lower  Mississippi. 
Why  should  not  a portion  of  this  be  saved  in  reservoirs  for  irrigation 
and  to  water  stock  later  in  the  summer?  The  government  has  surveyed 
over  thirty  reservoir  sites,  mainly  in  Central  Montana.  It  may  be 
that  the  artesian  supply  will  also  become  imx^ortant.  The  amount  of 
water  needed  to  benefit  a given  meadow  should  be  more  carefully 
studied.  Blue  joint  is  universally  regarded  as  the  richest  hay  of  the 
country,  and  by  careful  irrigation  our  native  iq^lands  will  yield  good 
stands;  yet  when  water  stands  on  the  surface  this  grass  disappears  and 
is  replaced  by  rushes,  sedges  and  the  less  valuable  grasses  of  the  wet 
meadow  flora  . It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  our  most  valuable 
grasses  do  not  grow  in  swami^s.  Most  of  them  are  easily  drowned  out 
and  replaced  by  others  less  valuable.  “Under  the  present  conditions 
one  may  frequently  see  a man  injuring  his  meadows  and  fields  by  using 
too  much  water,  while  those  of  his  neighbor  some  miles  down  the  val- 
ley are  suffering,  i^erhai^s  totally,  ruined,  for  lack  of  the  water.” 

When  the  pioneer  came  west  he  found  the  ranges  covered  with 
vast  forage  resources.  The  question  then  was,  how  can  we  get  stock 
enough  to  use  this  wealth?  Now  conditions  have  changed.  There  is 
more  stock  on  our  ranges  than  they  can  supi^ort.  Each  rancher  “knows 
that  if  his  stock  does  not  eat  the  grass,  that  of  somebody  else  will,  and 
naturally  he  thinks  he  might  as  well  l>enefit  by  it  as  anyone.  In  his 
effort  to  get  his  ‘share'  he  cantributes  to  the  general  destruction  instead 
of  trying  to  avert  it.” 

As  conditions  are  di  if  ting  now,  it  is  only  a matter  of  time  when  all 
the  public  domain  will  be  cvrned  or  leased  by  the  ranchers.  If  the  rent 
can  l)e  made  reasonable  so  as  not  to  exteiminate  tbe  smaller  owners, 
they  will  l)e  given  an  incentive  to  adopt  measures  for  the  betterment 
of  their  holdings,  and  knowing  that  they  and  not  someone  else  will  get 
the  benefit  of  their  endeavors,  they  will  make  the  subject  a study  and 
year  by  year  their  ranges  will  be  enabled  to  support  more  and  more 
stock.  It  has  been  asserted  that  all  the  ranges  need  is  rest,  but  it  has 
been  pointed  out,  in  speaking  of  the  blue  grama,  that  conditions  liaA^e 
come  where  the  most  valuable  of  our  range  grasses  have  been  nearly 
externiinated.  The  reseeding  of  the  ranges  is  a problem  that  each 
rancher  must  study  for  himself. 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA. 


13 


Generic  Key  to  the  Grasses  and  Grass-like  Plants  of  Montana* 

Note. — In  the  following  scheme  the  word  “glume”  signifies  the 
outer  empty  scales;  “pale”  denotes  the  inner  scale  enclosing  the 
flower;  and  “spike”  is  used  to  indicate  any  dense  cylindrical  inflores- 
cence. Number  before  name  indicates  paragraph. 


Perianth  of  six  glumaceous  segments;  capsule  .3-valved A. 

Perianth  of  bristles,  minute  or  none: 

Flowers  in  the  axil  of  single  glumes;  stems  solid;  sheaths  closed B. 

Flowers  enclosed  in  a pair  of  glumes;  stems  hollow;  sheaths  split C. 


A.  Jvmcaceae  (RUSH  FAMILY). 

Leaf-sheaths  open;  capsule  1-3  celled,  many  seeded;  placenta  parietal  or  axial. 

Plants  never  hairy;  on  moist  ground JUNCUS. 

Leaf-sheaths  closed;  capsule  1-celled,  3-seeded;  placenta  basal.  Plants  usually 

hairy;  often  on  dry  ground JUNCOIDES. 

B.  Cyperaceae  (SEDGE  FAMILY). 

1.  Flowers  perfect;  spikelets  all  similar 2; 

1.  Flowers  monoecious  or  dioecious,  usually  borne  in  separate  spikelets. . CAREX. 

2.  Spikes  in  single  or  umbelled  terminal  heads;  .spikelets  2-rowed CYPERUS. 

2.  Glumes  spirally  imbricate  all  around ,3. 

3.  Base  of  style  swollen,  persistent  as  a tubercle  on  the  achene;  spikes 

solitary ELEOC  HARIS. 

3.  Base  of  style  narrow,  deciduous 4 

4.  Spikes  one  to  many;  bristles  1-6  included,  rarely  none SCIRPUS. 

4.  Spikes  few;  bristles  6-many,  soft,  very  long,  slender,  and  much  exserted. 

ERIOPHORUM. 

C.  Oramineae  (GRASS  FAMILY). 


Inflorescence  spicate 2: 

Inflorescence,  a raceme  of  unilateral  spikes;  spikelets  2-rowed.. 20 

Inflorescence,  a compound  raceme  of  panicled  spikelets 21 

Inflorescence,  of  paniculate  unilateral  spikes  10 

Inflorescence,  an  open  panicle 2.3’ 

2.  Spikes  equilateral,  cylindrical  to  capitate 3 

2.  Spikes  unilateral 4 

3.  A strictly  cylindrical  spike;  spikelets  one-flowered,  close,  and  equally  dis- 

tributed on  axis 5 

3.  Spikes  short,  ovate  to  capitate  6' 

4.  Unilateral  spikes,  paniculate,  often  loose 10 

4.  Unilateral  spikes  racemose 20 


14 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


5.  Glumes  united  at  base,  awnless;  pale  one,  awned 12-13,  ALOPECURUS, 

5.  Glumes  distinct,  mucronate;  pales  two,  awnless 5S,  59,  PHLEUM 

6.  Spikelets  unisexular  and  dissimilar;  staminate  and  pistillate  on  the  same 

or  separate  plants BULBILIS 

6.  Spikelets  with  one  perfect  flower  and  often  another  imperfect 7 

6.  Spikelets  with  two  to  many  perfect  flowers 12 

7.  Three  spikelets  at  each  joint  of  articulate  rachis 48-50,  HORDEUM. 

7.  Spikelets  not  all  alike,  usually  in  twos;  axis  of  spikes  or  racemes  hairy;  fer- 
tile glumes  awned  14,  ANDROPOGON. 

7.  A large,  short  spike  or  a panicle  of  these;  spikelets  but  one  at  a place,  not 

clustered,  awnless 57,  PHALARIS 

7.  Flowers  perfect,  single 8 

8.  Pale  awned  or  sharp  pointed 9 

8.  Pale  awnless,  shorter  and  broader  than  the  glumes 10 

9.  Pale  awn  terminal  or  absent;  pales  firmer  than  glumes  and  closely  envelop- 

ing the  grain 11 

■9.  Pale  awn  dorsal;  grain  loose  or  not  at  all  enclosed 10 

10.  Tuft  of  long  silky  hairs  at  base  of  pale 24-29,  CALAMAGROSTIS. 

10.  Pale  not  hairy 9-11,  AGROSTIS. 

11.  Pale  sharp  pointed  to  long  slender  awned 54,  MUHLENBERGIA 

11.  Pale  with  long,  stout,  twisted  awn 72-75,  STIPA. 

12.  More  or  less  paniculate,  spikelets  not  sessile 13 

12.  Spikelets  sessile  on  alternate  notches  of  the  rachis 15 

13.  Pale  obtuse  or  with  short  terminal  awn 14 

13.  Pale  awn  dorsal,  twisted  and  bent: 

(a)  Spikelets  9-16  mm.  long 32-34,  DANTHONIA. 

(b)  Spikelets  4-7  mm.  long 76,  TRISETUM. 

14.  Pale  sharp  pointed;  spikelets  in  very  short  clusters  mixed  with  leaves 

.‘ MUNROA. 

14.  Pale  obtuse  or  acutish;  first  glume  narrowly  linear,  second  glume  broadly 

obovate 37,  EATON  I A, 

14.  Pale  and  glume  both  acute  and  about  the  same  length 52,  KCELERIA. 

14.  Pale  usually  awned  at  tip;  flowers  distinct 44-47,  FESTUCA. 

15.  Spikelets  solitary  at  each  joint  of  the  rachis ; 16 

15.  Spikelets  two,  rarely  as  high  as  six,  at  each  joint  of  rachis 18 

16.  Cultivated  grasses  (wheat  and  rye);  pale  sometimes  keeled 17 

16.  Native  grasses;  pale  round  on  back 1-8,  AGROPYRON. 

17.  Nerves  of  pale  convergent  at  tip;  glumes  1-nerved SECALE. 

17.  Pale  nerves  parallel;  glumes  3-many  nerved.  (Wheat) TRITICUM. 

18.  Rachis  not  articulate;  glumes  entire 38-42,  ELYMUS. 

18.  Rachis  articulate;  glumes  two  or  more  parted 67,  SITANION. 

19.  Spikelets  one  to  two  flowered,  subsessile  on  two  sides  of  a subtriangular 

rachis  in  a long  narrow  panicle 17,  BECKMANNIA. 

19.  Spikelets  many-flow^ered,  much  flattened,  subsessile,  and  densely  crowded 

in  thick  one-sided  clustered DACTYLIS. 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA. 


15 


20.  Spikelets  crowded  in  two  rows  on  one  side  of  rachis.  Prolongation  of 

rachilla  triaristate 18,  BOUTELOUA. 

20.  Spikelets  flattened,  subsessile  and  strongly  compressed  on  two  sides  of  a 

triangular  rachis 68,  SPARTINA. 

20.  Spikelets  obtuse,  often  short-pedicelled,  and  scattered;  first  glume  usually 

shorter  than  the  second . . PANICUM. 

21.  One  perfect  sessile  flower  alternating  on  two  sides  of  a slender  three-.sided 

rachis 66,  SCHEDONNARDUS. 

21.  Two  to  many  perfect-flowered,  pedicelled  spikelets 22 

22.  Glumes  one  to  two  nerved;  pales  3-nerved ERAGROSTIS. 

22.  Glumes  3-9  nerved;  pales  5-many  nerved 53,  MELICA. 

23.  Spikelets  with  one  perfect  flower  and  often  another  imperfect 24 

23.  Spikelets  with  two  to  many  perfect  flowers 31 

24.  Spikelets  usually  in  twos,  not  all  alike;  axis  of  spikes  or  raceme  hairy; 

fertile  glumes  awned  14,  ANDROPOGON. 

24.  Spikelets  not  more  than  one  in  a place: 

(a)  Containing  no  abortive  flowers 25 

(b)  With  abortive  flowers;  first  glume  shorter,  awnless PANICUM. 

25.  Pale  firmer  than  glume  and  closely  enveloping  the  grain 26 

25.  Pale  usually  thin,  not  as  firm  as  glume;  grain  loose  or  not  at  all  enclosed  . 28 

26.  Pale  entire  bearing  a terminal  three-branched  awn 15,  ARISTIDA. 

26.  Pale  awn  terminal  or  between  two  teeth,  simple 27 

27.  Pale  sharp  pointed  to  long  slender  awned 54,  MUHLENBERGIA, 

27.  Pale  tipped  with  a long,  stout,  twisted  awn 72-75,  STIPA. 

27.  Floret  globular,  clothed  with  long,  silky  hairs 43,  ERIOCOMA. 

28.  Rachilla  usually  bearing  a tuft  of  long  silky  hairs  produced  beyond  it; 

pale  membranous 24-29,  CALAMAGROSTIS. 

28.  Rachilla  usually  bearing  a tuft  of  long  silky  hairs  at  base  of  pale.  Tough 

sand-binding  grasses 30,  CALAMOVILPA. 

28.  Base  of  pale  naked  or  thinly  barbed 29 

29.  Pale  sessile  in  glumes 30 

29.  Pale  stalked  in  glumes,  awned  on  back CINNA. 

30.  Pale  acute,  awnless;  glumes  two,  shorter  than  pales;  spikelets  sometimes 

two-flowered 69-71,  SPOROBOLUS. 

30.  Pale  obtuse,  often  awned  on  back;  glumes  two,  longer  than  pales.  . . .-. 

9-11,  AGROSTIS. 

30.  Pale  obtuse,  keel  often  extending  into  a short  awn;  glumes  four,  longer 

than  or  as  long  as  pales SAVASTANA. 

31.  Pale-awn  dorsal  or  between  two  lobes  at  apex,  more  or  less  twisted  and 

bent 32 

31.  Pale  awnless  or  with  a terminal  straight  awn;  glumes  shorter  than  pales. . 35 

32.  Pale-awn  between  two  teeth  or  lobes,  twisted  and  bent;  spikelets  9-16  mm. 

long 32-34,  DANTHONIA 

2.  Pale-awn  dorsal  or  basal 33. 


16 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


33.  Spikelets  less  than  10  mm,  long 34 

33.  Spikelets  more  than  10  mm.  long 16,  AVENA. 

31.  Pale  obtuse;  awn  taper-pointed,  not  articulate 35,  DESCHAMPSIA. 

34.  Pale  2-toothed;  one  or  two  of  uppermost  florets  awned 76.  TRISETUM. 

35.  Tall  reed-like  grasses;  long  hairs  on  rachilla PHRAGMITES 

.35.  Not  reed-like;  pale  naked  or  with  hairs  shorter  than  glumes 36 

36.  Pale  1-3  nerved 37 

36.  Pale  3-many  nerved;  spikelets  2-8  flowered,  5-2)  mm.  long;  first  glume  3-5 

nerved,  second  5-7  nerved 53,  MELICA. 

36.  Pale  5-many  nerved 39 

37.  Glumes  nearly  equal  in  length  but  very  unlike,  the  first  narrowly  linear, 

the  second  broadly  obovate,  obtuse , 37,  E ATONI  A. 

.37.  Glumes  unequal  in  length  but  similar  in  shape  38 

.38.  Spikelets  2 rarely  3-4  flowered;  2-4  mm.  long CATABROSA. 

38.  Spikelets  many  flowered  2-18  mm.  long  ERAGROSTIS. 

39.  Spik^^lets  6-8  mm.  long,  densely  crowded  in  thick  one-sided  clusters.  (Cul- 

tivated)  DACTYLIS. 

.39,  Rays  in  whorls  of  1-5  or  more;  glumes  awnless 40 

40.  Lateral  nerves  of  pale  nearly  parallel,  not  converging;  glumes  shorter  than 

pales.  Moist  meadows  usually . 41 

40.  Lateral  nerves  of  pale  arched  and  converging  above 42 

41.  Glumes  nerveless  or  3-5  nerved;  pales  with  ,3-9  conspicuous  nerves;  spike 

lets  2 mm.  broad,  and  3-15  mm.  long 55-56,  PANICULARIA. 

41.  Glumes  1-3  nerved;  pale  obscurely  5-nerved;  spikelets  2 mm.  wide  and  3-7 

mm.  long 65,  PUCCINELLIA. 

42.  Rachilla  fringed  with  downy,  cobweb-like  hairs  around  the  pale;  pale 

usually  obtuse  awnless;  spikelets  3-10  mm.  long 60-64,  POA. 

42.  Spikelets  5-13  mm.  long  and  not  crowded  on  the  naked  rachilla;  pale 

round  on  back,  sometimes  keeled  and  often  awned 44-47,  FESTUCA. 

42.  Spikelets  10-40  mm.  long;  rachilla  naked;  pale  often  awned. , 19-21,  BROMUS. 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA. 


17 


Annotated  List  of  thie  Orasses  of  Central  Montana. 


/.  .Ag]'()jjyrnn  occideiitale , Scribn,  Blue-Joint  or  Blue  Stem.  [Fig  1|. 


This  L^rass,  popularly  known  as  blue-joint,  ,^tows  on  niixetl  soils 
of  clay,  sand  anrl  gravel  and  is  found  widely  scattered  from  the  edges 
of  heavil};  rdkaline  soils  throug’h  the  upland  prairie  benches  and  foot- 


1.  Agropyron  occidentale,  Scribn. 
(U.  S.  Div.  of  Agros.)  • 


hills  to  the  mountain  parks.  Grow- 
ing alone,  it  often  forms  a thick 
rank  mass  of  foliage  on  rich  black 
loam  meadows  which  are  overflowed 
by  waiter  jDeriodically.  Lender  these 
conditions  it  forms  the  very  rich- 
est and  best  hay  of  the  country. 
Where  water  stands  on  the  surface 
in  summer,  it  kills  out  easily  and 
in  its  place  come  rushes,  sedges 
and  the  grasses  of  the  wet  niedow" 
flora.  Where  over-irrigated,  alkali, 
too,  is  apt  to  come  in,  and  grasses, 
like  salt  grass,  which  can  better 
endure  alkali,  take  the  iflace  of  the 
blue  joint.  Its  scattered  growdh 
seldom  heads  out  on  the  prairie 
benches  today.  It  is  easily  killed 
out  by  the  close  grazing  and  tramp- 
ing of  stock. 

2.  Agroyyroji  occiclentaJeiuoUe, 
Scribn.  Colorado  Blue-stem. 


3.  Agvojjyron  divergens,  Nees.  Bunch  Wheat  Grass. 

On  the  prairie  benches  this  forms  bunches^often  a foot^in  diameter 
and  one  to  two  feet  high.  Clustered  near  the  edge  of  steep  slopes, 
they  are  often,  at  a distance,  mistaken  for  sheep  by  strang- 
ers. In  the  foothills  it  blends  with  other  grasses  to  form  valuable 
upland  meadows.  Growing  alone,  it  often  covers  south  exposures. 
When  cut  yearly,  it  makes  good  hay  for  horses  and  cattle,  but  is  rather 
coarse  for  sheep. 


18 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


4.  Agropyrou  GnieUidi,  S.  & S.  Short-ieaved  wheat  g-rass. 
d.  Agrnpyroii  pseud orepens,  S.  & S.  False  quack  grass. 

These  resemble  blue-joint  in  many  of  its  habits  and  are  popularly 
eonfused  with  it,  but  are  rather  rare. 

6'.  Agr()])yTon  liiAiardsoui,  Schrad.  Bearded  wheat  grass. 

This  grass  grows  in  moist  meadows,  in  the  foothills  and  in  moun- 
tain canyons  and  i3arks.  It  appears  to  intergrade  with  Elyiuiis  glaucus. 
7.  Agro])yroii  teiiermn,  Vasey.  Slender  wheat  grass. 

In  the  prairie  portion  of  the 
country,  it  is  sometimes  found  in 
ravines  and  meadows,  but  often  in 
thickets  of  rose  and  buck  brush. 
It  makes  as  gocd  or  better  hay 
than  timothy,  and  is  sometimes 
found  alone  or  mixed  with  a few 
other  rank  grasses  in  creek  bends 
of  the  foothills. 

H.  Agropyron  violaceum,  Lange. 
Mountain  wheat  grass. 


This  grass  is  found  high  on 
mountain  sides,  in  mountain  parks, 
and  in  the  upper  edge  of  the  foot- 
hills. It  seldom  grows  alone,  but 
adds  its  value  to  the  general  grass 
flora. 

0.  Agrostis  aZia.L.Red  Top.[FiG  2]. 

This  tame  grass  is  to  be  found 
to-day  in  many  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. A few  years  ago  large  quanti- 
ties of  the  seed  were  shipped  in 
and  sold  out  to  the  ranchers  of 
two  or  three  localities.  They  were 
looking  for  a,  drought-resisting 
grass,  and  as  this  received  high 
commendation  by  the  store- keej^er, 


2.  .Agrostis  alba,  L. 
(U.  S.  Div.  of  Af?r()S.) 


19 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS  OF_^ CENTRAL  MONTANA. 


they  sowed  it  on  land  where  other  grasses  had  failed  to  give  a good 
crop.  The  resulting  failure  caused  ^many  people  to  condemn  it; 
yet  it  has  been  fouml  to  in  die  rank  growth  of  hay  on  land  that  is 
too  wet  for  most  other  grasses— land  usually  covered  by  rushes  and 
sedges.  However,  the  land  .must  not  be  submerged.  If  those  who 
have  drowned  out  their  blue-joint  meadows  would  sow  red-top  before 
the  rushes  and  sedges  come  in,  they  may  still  exxiect  good  hay.  If  the 
rushes  and  sedges  have  taken  possession,  it  may  be  necessary  to  plow 
the  land  before  the  red- top  will  catch. 

10.  Agivstis  as])erifalia,  Trin.  Rough-leaved  bent-grass. 

This  grass,  though  resembling  red-top  in  many  ways,  grows  on 
much  dryer  land  and  to  greater  altitudes,  but  will  not  furni^di  as  large 
a quantity  of  hay.  With  other  grasses,  it  sometimes  forms  a large 
portion  of  the  vegetation  in  certain  mountain  meadows. 

' 11.  Agrostis  hievialis,  B-  S.  P.  Hair  grass,  or  tickle  grass. 

Widely  scattered  from  the  alkaline  Hats  of  the  Badlands  almost  to 
the  mountain  tops,  this  grass  grows  around  the  edge  of  intermittent 
pond  holes  mixed  with  what  is  popularly  known  as  foxtail  (Hordeum 
JUBATUM).  In  some  respects  it  resembles  red-top  and  is  often  found 
mixed  with  it,  but  is  almost  worthlessHor  hay. 

12.  Alopeourus  geniciilatiis,  H-  Floating  foxtail. 

Mixed  with  two  or  three  small  sedges,  this  grass  covers  , the  bot- 
tom of  intermittent  pond  holes  and  portions  of  river  flood-plains,  as 
the  low  bank  of  the  Missouri  above  Great  Falls.  It  sometimes  grows 
to  a height  of  a" foot  or  more,  but  falls  easily. 


20 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


13.  Alopeciirus  occi(le]%talis,  Scribn.  Mountain  Foxtail.  [Fig  3.] 

Though  this  grass  was  found  by  the  writer  only  in  the  ux3per  end 
of  Belt  Park  under  the  shade  of  small  clum^is  of  white  pine,  it  is  re- 
XDorted  at  high  altitudes  throughout  the  Rocky  Mountain  region.  In 
ali^ine  meadows  it  often  makes  a remarkably  luxuriant  growth,  fre- 


quently reaching  a height  of 
three  or  four  feet.  Its  foilage 
is  soft,  but  it  is  probably  one  of 
the  most  promising  of  the  na- 
tive grasses  for  cultivation  in 
meadows  at  the  higher  altitudes 
and  in  moist  partly  shaded 
mountain  parks. 

14-  Andropogon  scoparius, 
Mx.  Little  Blue-Stem. 

Grows  in  clumps  a foot  or 
two  high  on  steei3  gravely  side- 
hills  and  in  the  bottoms  of 
rocky  ravines  of  the  drier  por- 
tion of  the  country.  It  heads 
out  late  in  August  and  is  tough 
and  woody,  not  usually  eaten  by 
stock. 

15.  vlristida  longiseta  robiis- 
ta,  Merrill.  Dogtown  grass. 

Its  habits  are  very  similar  to 
those  of  Andropogon  scoparius. 


3.  Alopecurus  occidentalis,  Scribn. 
(U.  S.  Div.  of  Agros.) 


FOEAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA. 


21 


16.  Avena  Americana,  Scribn.  American  oat-grass  [Fig.  4], 

This  is  found  principally  on  the  upland  benches  of  the  foothills 
and' the  dryer  portions  of  the  mountain  parks,  but  it  is  also  seen  in 
mountain  canyons  and  in  sheltered  ravines  of  the  plains.  It  grows 
from  a few  inches  to  a foot  high.  Mixed  with  other  grasses,  it  adds 
greatly  to  the  value  of  the  forage,  but  will  never  form  a meadow  by 
itself. 


4.  Avena  Americana,  Scribn. 
(U.  S.  Div.  of  Agros.) 


Beckmannia  erucmformis.  Host. 
(U.  S.  Div.  of  Agros.) 


22 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


The  name  slough  grass  is  popularly  confused  with  a collection  of 
broad- leaved  sedges,  not  grasses  at  all.  This  grass  grows  in  shallow 
water  with  rushes  and  sedges. 

IH.  BouteJoJia  oligostacliya,  Blue  grama  [Fig.  6]. 

This  is  today  the  most  abundant  grass  of  the  dry  plains  region 
and  is  undoubtedly  the  richest.  It  grows  on  dry,  porous  non-alkaline 

soil  usually,  and  is  not  found  in 
buffalo  wallows  or  wet  places  or  on 
stiff  clays.  On  the  dry  benches 
the  foliage  is  a mass  of  curly  leaves 
covering  the  ground  but  two  or 
three  inches  high  at  best.  In  some 
places,  where  new  soil  is  washed 
down  from  the  hillside  above  by 
every  heavy  rain,  the  brown  fruited 
stems  of  the  blue  grama  are  often 
ten  inches  high  and  thick  enough 
to  remind  one  of  waves  of  water 
when  the  wind  blows.  “ This 
grass  improves  very  rapidly  under 
cultivation.  For  several  years  it 
has  grown  luxuriantly  in  the  ex- 
perimental grounds  of  the  Depart- 
ment at  Wa.sbington.  D.  C.,  start- 
ing to  green  out  about  the  middle 
of  April  and  growing  from  18  to  80 
inches  high,  varying  with  the 
seasons."’ 

IV.  ' Br 01  HUS  inenuis,  L.  Smooth  brome  grass. 

This  extremely  valuable  imported  grass  is  slowly  but  surely  mak- 
ing its  way  into  the  confidence  of  the  people.  It  is  very  hardy,  and 
when  once  established  it  is  green  earliest  in  the  spring  and  the  latest 
in  the  fall.  When  not  too  dry  it  yields  a stand  of  rich  hay  that  all 
kinds  of  stock  eat  with  relish. 


6.  Bouteloua  oligostachya,  Torr. 
(U.  S.  Div.  of  Agros.) 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA. 


2H 


20.  Broimis  ituu'ginatiLS,  Nees.  [Pig.  7J. 

This  native  brome  ^rass  is  widely  distributed  from  the  edge  of  the 
badlfinds  almost  to  the  moinitain  to[)s.  In  th'^  prairie  portion  it  grows 
ni'iinly  in  the  he’ids  of  little  draws  [)iittiiig  down  into  ravines. 


21.  B ■ }iri  ’/y  P)  \ ei‘i,  Nasii. 

Has  about  rht‘  same  distribution  as  the 
preceding,  only  in  the  prairie  rc'gion  it  grows 
in  clumps  of  small  brush,  like  Aoropyron 
TENERPM. 

22.  Bvoimis  Pn  r,t  ])elU((nus,  Scrib:-^.  West- 
ern brome  arass. 

This  native  brome  grass  rt'sembles  Bro- 
MUS  iNERMUb  in  many  of  its  habits.  Occurs 
on  mountain  Ades  loriacipally  and,  vdnere  the 
timber  has  been  killed  by  fire,  it  gives  prom- 
ise of  forming  good  f.n  igta  It  was  cultivated 
at  the  Ottawa  experiment  station  ami  consid- 
ered a very  valuable  gT,.n3. 

22.  Brciiius  lUcliruP f^nii , Link. 

Found  in  similar  Atiiations  with  B.  PoR- 
TERI. 

24-  CdJniihagrosfis  Cffmrden.sis  (Kjnnii;- 
dld.,  Vasey.  . 


7.  Bromus  marginatiis,  Necs. 

(U.  S.  Div.  of  Agros.) 

■ In  the  timber  on  mountain  sides,  its  broad-leave  1,  tender  foliage 
may  nearly  cover  the  ground  and  is  probably  mixed  with  two  other 
members  of  this  genus.  In  semi-moist,  partly  shaded  x^ortions  of 
mountain  jrarks,  it  often  furnishes  large  quantities  of  summer  forage. 


2d.  CdjlainffgTosti s hypeiPorcd  rlmeri( (uuf , Kearn. 

Found  only  in  mountain  parks,  it  grows  slightly  more  in  the  open 
than  the  last. 


24 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


^0.  Calaiihagrostis  hy]jerhrea  stenocles,  Kearn. 

^7.  CalaDiagrostis  inontauensis,  Scribn. 

Seldom  found  in  the  mountains;  these  grasses  grow  on  stiff 
elays,  on  upland  alkaline  lands,  or  even  on  the  dry  open  benches. 
Tliey  are  commonly  mixed  with  prairie  June  grass  (Koeleria  crista- 
TA)  and  popularly  confused  with  it. 

C(daj}b((grostis  ])ur]m,vasteibs,  R-  Br. 

Found  in  bunches  on  the  tops  of  mountains,  on  mountain  ridges 
and  among  broken  rocks  on  rugged  mountain  sides. 

i20.  C((l(uriagrostis  SiiJcsdovfii,  Scribn. 

Found  under  about  the  same  conditions  and  often  with  C.  hyper- 
BOREA  Americana. 

SO.  CdlciDVOvilfci  lojigifolia,  Hack.  Big  Sand  Grass, 

This  tough,  broad-leaved  grass  is  valuable  to  bind  loose  drifting 
sands.  Commonly  found  in  circular  patches  in  dry  sandy  swales  and 
on  sandy  hillsides,  where  it  grows  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other 
grasses.  It  often  covers  sandy  bends  of  the  Missouri  river,  and  is 
used  for  pasture  and  sometimes  even  for  hay. 

31.  Cyperaceae.  Sedges,  or  slough-grass. 

These  broad -leaved  plants  resemble  the  true  grasses.  They  grow 
mostly  in  moist  ravines  and  w^et  meadows,  but  one  (Carex  filieolia, 
Nutt.)  is  also  found  on  the  dryest  benches  with  the  blue  grama  (Bopu 
TELOUA  oligostachya).  Several  more  grow  on  mountain  sides 
and  in  mountain  parks. 

Meadows  of  rushes  and  sedges  are  valued  highly  by  some  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  they  furnish  large  quantities  of  hay  yearly 
and  will  continue  to  do  so  indefinitely. 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA. 


25 


S2.  Danthonia  Californica,  Bol.  California  Oat  Grass. 

33.  Dciiithoriia  intermedia,  Vasey.  Rocky  Mountain  Oat  Grass.  [Pig  8]. 
33-  Danthonia  unispicata^  Munro.  Tumble  Grass. 

These  three  grasses,  though  quite  different,  are  also  much  alike, 
The  first  two  are  usually  eighteen  inches  high  and  grow  scattered. 
The  last  is  four  to  eight  inches  high  and  found  in  mats  on  the  edges 
of  little  sags.  All  grow  in  the  foothills,  and  the  first  two  also  in  moun- 
tain parks,  at  times  well  uj)  on 
mountain  sides.  In  the  i3rairie 
region  the  first  occurs  only  in  nar- 
row strips  down  the  bottom  of  dry 
ravines. 

35.  Deschai)ipsia  caespitosa, 

Beauv.  Tussock  grass. 

This  grass  requires  about  the 
same  conditions  as  red-top  (Ageos- 
Tis  alba),  and  is  usually  found  in 
wet  meadows  and  swamps  where 
there  is  plenty  of  sun.  “ While 
neither  the  yield  nor  the  quality  of 
forage  is  equal  to  that  obtained 
from  timothy  or  red-toj),  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  this  grass  fills  an 
important  place  among  the  native 
meadow  and  pasture  grasses  of  this 
region.”  In  places  where  many 
better  grasses  can  not  grow,  it  of- 
ten converts  bogs  into  useful 
meadow  lands  by  means  of  its 
dense  tufts  and  tough,  fibrous  roots.  Continued  mowing  and  pastur- 
ing have  the  effect  of  reducing  its  tufts  to  a fairly  even  sod,  esj^ecially 
when  a few  other  grasses  act  as  fillers. 


Dantlionia  intermedia,  Vasey. 
(U.  S.  Div.  of  Agros.) 


30.  Distiehlis  spieata,  Greene.  Salt  grass.  Alkali  grass. 

Wherever  this  grass  is  found,  one  can  say  with  fair  certainty  that 
there  is  considerable  alkali  in  the  soil.  (See  alkali  fiats.) 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


26 


37.  Eafonia  ohtiisafa,  Early  Bunch  Grass.  [Fig9\ 

This  grass  is  found  in  moist  meadows,  mainly  those  overflowed  by 
water  in  the  spring  and  nearly  free  from  alkali.  It  makes  excehent 
hay. 


33.  Elynuts  Cdnadetisis,  L,  Wild  Rye.  Canadian  Rye-Grass. 

This  grass  is  found  in  clumps  of  small  brush  and  in  moist  shady 
nooks  of  the  prairie.  Mixed  with  other  grasses  in  bends  of  creeks,  it 
sometimes  enters  largely  with  the  hay  of  lowlands.  It  is  probably  the 
most  generally  distrilmted  and  of  the  greatest  valne  in  meadows  of  all 
the  rye  grasses  here. 


9.  Eatouia  obtusata,  Gray. 
(U.  S.  Div.  of  .Af?ros.) 


10.  Elymus  condeasatU',  Presl . 
(U.S.  Div.  of  Af?ros.) 


3!).  El ijnuts  cojideiisfidus,  Presl.  Giant  rye  grass.  [Fig.  10]. 


This  coarse,  tongh  grass  is  found  in  bunches  a foot  or  two  in 
diameter  and  from  four  to  ten  feet  high.  It  grows  in  nooks  of  hills, 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA. 


27 


high  bends  of  creeks,  and  at  times  on  open  bottom  lands.  When 
young,  it  makes  hay  of  fair  quality,  but  becomes  tough  and  hard  un- 
less cut  annually. 

JfO.  Elyimis  glaucits,  Buckl.  Mountain  rye-grass. 

This  grass  thrives  in  mountain  canyons  and  parks  and  on  moun- 
tain sides  almost  to  the  tops.  It  is  seldom  if  ever  found  alone,  but 
appears  to  increase  in  quantity  in  the  parks  as  the  altitude  increases. 
It  is  certainly  a valuable  pasture  and  meadow  grass  for  high  altitudes. 

Jfl.  ElyiuiLS  Macounii , Vasey.  Macoun’s  rye-grass. 

42.  Elyinus  triticoicles,  Buckl.  Wild  rye. 

. The  above  are  two  other  rye  grasses  found  in  the  foothills  of  Cen- 
tral Montana,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  either  of  them  is  as  import- 
ant as  the  Canadian  or  Mountain  rye- grasses. 

Eriocoinci  ciispidata,  Nutt.  Indian  millet. 

In  Central  Montana  this  grass  is  mainly  found  in  scattered 
bunches  on  sandy  soil  or  hillsides  in  the  edge  of  the  badlands,  but  is 
also  found  more  rarely  on  clayey  soil  and  in  the  foothills.  The  foliage 
is  tough  and  wiry. 

44‘  Eeshica  camyestris,  Ryd.  Snow  grass. 

In  portions  of  the  foothills  partly  sheltered  by  mountains  and  in 
sections  of  mountain  parks,  this  grat-s  grows  nearly  alone.  In  such 
places,  it  is  found  on  mounds  similar  to  the  tussocks  on  which  certain 
swamxD  grasses  grow.  From  the  toj)  of  these  its  long  leaves  lop  over 
on  all  sides.  It  makes  good  pasturage,  as  it  starts  as  soon  as  the  snow 
is  olf  in  the  spring,  but  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  mow  for  hay.  It  is 
also  found  scattered  in  mountain  parks,  where  it  does  not  grow  in 
mounds  and  forms  only  a small  portion  of  the  ^orage,  but  when  mixed 
with  other  grasses  may  form  valuable  meadows. 

Eestuca  octo flora,  Walt.  Slender  fescue. 

This  strange  little  annual  is  found  widely  scattered  over  the  plains 
portion  of  the  country.  Stock  leave  it,  even  when  the  blue  grama  is 
gnawed  to  the  ground. 


28 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


4G.  Festuca  ovina,^-  Sheep  Fescue,  [Fig  11], 

4'7 . Festuca  vjihra,  L-  Red  Fescue. 

On  the  ni^lancl  lienches  of  the  foothills,  on  mountain  ridges  and  in 
the  drier  portion  of  mountain  parks,  these  two  valnable  grasses  form 
the  greater  part  of  the  forage  and  are  together*  know  as  bunch  grass. 
More  or  less  scattered  they  are  found  on  down  to  the  edge  of  wet 
meadows.  In  their  habit  they  resemble  the  blue  grama,  which  is  al- 
most absent  here. 


11.  Festuca  oviiia.  L. 
(U.  S.  Div.  of  x\«ros.) 


12.  Hoi^dei'm  .iubatuji,  L.  (U.  S.  Div.  of  A^?ros.) 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA. 


29 


They  grow  in  little  circular  bunches  two  or  three  inches  over  and 
include  many  varieties. 

Jf8.  Hordeinn  ccmpitosuTw,  Scribn. 

49.  Hordeiun  jitbatuin,  L.  Squirrel  Tail  Grass.  [Fig  T2j. 

These  two  grasses,  commonly  known  as  “foxtail”  through  the 
country,  are  ai3t  to  be  bad  weeds  on  moist  semi-alkaline  soil.  They 
are  found  around  the  edge  of  intermittent  jjond  holes  mixed  with  hair- 

grass  (Agrostis  hiemalis)  and  in  strongly 
alkaline  meadows  mixed  with  salt-grass 
(Distichlis  spicata). 

50.  Hordeimi  ]msillin)h,  Nutt.  Little 
barley. 


13.  Koeleria  cristata,  Pers. 
(U.  S.  Div.  of  Agios.) 


This  little  pest  grows  similar  to  slen- 
der fescue  (Festuca  octoflora),  crowding 
out  the  blue  grama,  and  is  not  eaten  by 
stock.  It  is  mainly  found  in  the  edge  of 
the  badlands. 

51.  Juncacae.  Rushes,  or  wire  gra.ss. 

Small  iDlants  resembling  the  grasses 
growing  in  clumps  along  the  bottom  of  dry 
ravines,  and  in  moist  meadows  mixed  with 
sedges.  Their  hay  is  low  in  food  value, 
but  is  often  cut  in  large  quantity. 

52.  Koeleria  cristata,  Pers.  Prairie  June 
Grass.  [Pig  13.] 

This  early  grass  rarely  grows  alone 
but  adds  greatly  to  the  forage  conditions. 
It  is  found  on  the  top  of  the  dryest  hills 
and  well  down  into  the  wet  meadows.  On 
alkaline  land,  if  any  grass  except  salt- 
grass  will  grow,  it  is  apt  to  be  found. 
Found  throughout  the  badlands,  prairie 
benches,  foothills,  mountain  parks  and  is 
apt  to  be  seen  on  the  mountain  sides  as 
high  as  the  grass  will  grow.  It  is  the 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


:io 


most  widely  distributed  grass  of  the  region.  It  matures  early,  dries 
ui)  and  furidshes  a large  quantity  of  seed.  It  is  one  of  the  first  to 
afford  pasturage  in  the  spring  and  is  much  relishetl  by  stock. 


U.  Mulilenbergia  racemosa,  R.  S,  P. 
(U.  S.  Div.  of  Agros.) 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA. 


56.  Paiiicularia  AviericaJia,  MacM.  Reed  Meadow  Grass.  [Fig  15], 
56.  l\onicularia  nervata,  Kuntze.  Foul  Meadow  Grass. 

' 57 . Plialaris  arundinacea,  R-  Reed  canary  grass.  [Fig.  IG]. 

These  are  usually  found  along  stream  margins  and  in  low  ground. 
The  first  two  grow  two  feet,  and  the  last  four  feet  high.  Under  fav- 
oradle  conditions,  they  produce  fair  hay.  The  last  is  by  far  the  most 
valuable.  Some  think  it  can  be  cultivated  to  advantage  on  land  that 
now  produces  only  rushes  and  sedges.  It  will  not  endure  alkali. 


1.").  Panicularia  Americana,  MacM. 
(U.  S.  Div.  of  Agros.) 


32 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


58.  Fhleinn  alpiiiinn,  L.  Mountain  timothy.  [Pig.  17]. 

59.  Fhleuni  pratense.  L-  Timothy. 

The  first  is  a native  at  high  altitudes  in  mountain  regions,  while 
the  last  is  one  of  the  best  known  and  most  widely  cultivated  of  the  im- 
ported grasses.  In  mountain  regions  the  latter  has  spread  so  rapidly 
of  late  years  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  which  is  now  in  the  greater 
abundance.  lii  mountain  meadows  they  form  at  times  very  large  i^or- 


li.  Phleum  alpinum,  L. 
(U.  S.  Div.  of  Agros.) 


18.  Poa  lucida,  Vasey. 
(U.  S.  Div.  of  Agros.) 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA. 


tioiis  of  the  vegetation.  The  writer  found  patches  where  the  common 
timothy  had  crowded  out  the  native  grasses  so  comjjletely  that  it  was 
difficult  to  believe  that  it  had  not  been  sowed  on  jdowed  ground. 

60.  Foa  laevigata,  Scribn.  Smooth  Bunch  Grass. 

6 1.  , Foa  lucida,  Vasey.  Pale  Bunch  Grass.  [Pig  18.] 

These  grasses  are  found  widely  scattered  over  the  prairie  benches, 
but  do  not  fill  anywhere  near  as  important  a place  as  formerly.  In 
meadows  overflowed  by  spring  runs  or  irrigated  moderately  they 
make  fine  hay. 

62.  Foa  nenboralis,  L.  Wood  Meadow  Grass. 

63.  Foa  Ji'evadensis,  Vasey.  Nevada  Blue-Grass. 

6Jf’  Foa  rivpicola,  Nash. 

This  was  found  in  a few  places  on  the  prairie  and  on  the  tops  of 
two  mountains.  It  resembles  the  other  meadow  grasses  in  appearance 
and  habits  of  growth. 

65.  Fuccinellia  airoides,  W.  & C.  Alkali  Meadow  Grass.  [Pig  19.] 


This  grass  is  principally  found 
as  one  of  the  constituents  of  wet 
meadows.  “ It  is  not  as  well  liked 
by  stock  as  many  other  grasses. 
It  possesses,  however,  alkali  resist- 
ant qualities,  which  enables  it  to 
grow  in  soils  which  better  grasses 
can  not  endure.” 


66.  Scliedo7ina.vdus  poaiicula- 
tus,  Trel.  Crab  Grass. 


This  annual  was  found  in  old 
ruts  in  Sand  Coulee,  east  of  Great 
Falls. 


67.  Sitanion  rigulum,  J-  G.  S. 


II 

19.  Paccinellia  airoides,  Wats.  & Coult. 
(U.  S.  Div.  of  Agros.) 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


U 


This  stiff,  long-bearded  grass  grows  on  rocky  mountain  tops,  as 
at  Square  Butte,  and  among  broken  igneous  rocks  and  limestone  on 
rugged  mountain  sides.  For  stock,  it  is  far  worse  than  the  squirrel- 
tail  grass  (Hokdeum  jubatum). 


(J8.  S parti Jia  eynosaroides,  Willd.  Big  Cord  Grass.  [Fig  20]. 


This  grass  grows  in  or  near 
shallow  water,  and  adds  to  the 
forage  of  wet  meadows.  It  is 
tough  and  generally  avoided  by 
stock. 


20.  Spartina  cynosuroides,  Willd. 
(U.  S.  Div.  Agros). 


21.  Sporobolus  brevifolius,  Scribn. 
(U.  S.  Div.  .\gros). 


(it),  Spoj'oi/olns  as])ei'if()lias^  Thurb.  Rough-Leaved  Salt-Grass. 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  AIONTANA. 


35 


Grows  well  on  strongly  alkaline  soil  and  has  little  more  value 
than  salt-grass  (Distichlis  spicata). 

70.  Sporoholus  hrevifolius,  Scribn.  Prairie  Rush  Grass.  [Pig  21]. 

Scattered  from  the  edge  of  the  mountain  region  to  well  down  into 
the  badlands;  thrives  under  all  conditions  except  on  the  dry  bench 
lands.  It  grows  in  patches  thick  on  the  ground  and  from  four  inches 
to  two  feet  high,  depending  upon  the  amount  of  moisture.  On  the 
ranges,  however,  sheep  leave  it  until  the  blue  grama  is  gone.  This 
grass'gives  promise  of  great  value,  as  it  withstands  alkali  well  and  in 
moist  meadow^s  furnishes  a surprising  amount  of  hay. 

71.  Sporoholus  cryptcmdriis,  Gray.  Sand 
Rush  Grass. 

Grows  in  scattered  bunches  in  sandy 
places,  mainly  in  the  badlands. 

72.  Stipa  comxita.  F.  & R.  Needle  Grass. 

[Fig  22]. 

This  grass  is  widely  scattered  over  the 
benches  of  the  open  country  and  its  foilage 
is  rich  in  food  for  stock.  Its  needles,  how- 
ever, are  very  sharp,  and  getting  into  wool, 
often  penetrate  the  skin. 

73.  Stipa  liichaj'dsonii,  Gray.  Richardson’s 
Feather  Grass. 

Found  in  the  edge  of  the  mountain  re- 
gion only.  It  appears  to  be  inferior  to  Stipa 
viRiDULA  in  value, 

74.  Stipa  spartea,  Trin.  Porcupine  Grass. 

Devil’s  Needles. 


22.  Stipa  comata,  Trin.  & Rupr. 
(U.  S.  Div.  Agros). 

Resembles  Stipa  comata,  but  is  taller  and  more  erect,  growing 
in  the  foothills  mainly.  Its  needles  are  also  sharper,  longer  and  stif- 
fer,  and  are  more  injurious  to  stock. 


m 


mojntana  experiment  station. 


75.  SUpa  viridula,  Vasey.  Feather  Bunch-Grass. 

Usually  grows  in  small  bunches,  but  sometimes  scattered,  on 
stiff  plastic  clays  of  the  badlands,  and  in  nearly  every  semi-moist  nook 

and  corner  of  a hilly  country,  yet 
never  in  great  quantity  anywhere. 
In  the  foothills  and  mountain 
parks,  it  grows  more  in  the  open 
and  often  adds  to  the  general  value 
of  the  forage;  does  well  under  irri- 
gation. 

7(7  Trisetiun  suhspicdtu  Di, 
Beauv.  Downy  Oat-Grass. 

[Fig  23]. 

Growing  mainly  on  mountain 
sides  and  ridges  and  in  mountain 
parks.  This  grass  flourishes  in  a 
variety  of  soils,  but  is  most  com- 
monly found  in  moist  open  wood- 
lands or  in  the  edge  of  thickets. 


23.  Trisetum  subspicatum,  Beauv, 
(U,  S.  Div.  of  Agros). 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA. 


:I7 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Anderson,  F.  W.  Pastoral  Resources  of  Montana.  Report. of  Com.  of 
Agri.  (1888.) 

Beal,  W.  J.  Grasses  of  North  America.  Vol.  I (1886.)  Vol.  II  (1896). 
Britton  & Brown.  Illustrated  Flora  of  Northern  States  and  Canada 
(1896). 

Coulter,  John  M.  Manual  of  Rocky  Mountain  Botany  (1885). 

Gray,  Asa.  Manual  of  the  Botany  of  Northern  United  States  (1889). 
Kearny,  Thos.  H.  A Revision  of  the  Genus  Calamagrostis  (1898). 
Kennedy,  P.  B.  Structure  of  the  Caryopsis  of  Grasses  (1900). 

Co-operative  Experiments  with  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants 
(1900). 

Rydberg,  P.  A.  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
(1897). 

Catalogue  of  the  Plants  of  Montana  and  the  Y.  N.  P.  (1896). 
Scribner,  F.  L.  American  Grasses.  Vols.  I,  II  and  III  (1900). 
Agricultural  Grasses  of  Central  Montana  (1883). 

Description  of  New  or  Little  Known  Grasses  (1898). 

Economic  Grasses  (1900). 

Native  and  Introduced  Species  of  Genera  Hordeum  and  Agrop- 
yron  (1897). 

Shear,  C.  L.  A Revision  of  the  Genus  Bromus  (1900). 

Field  Work  in  the  Division  of  Agrostology  (1901). 

Grasses  -and  Forage  Plants  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region 
(1897). 

Information  on  the  Genera  Hordeum,  Elymus  and  Sitanion 
(1901). 

Smith,  J.  G.  A Synopsis  of  the  Genus  Sitanion  (1899). 

Native  and  Introduced  Species  of  the  Genera  Hordeum  and 
Agropyron  (1897  ). 

Williams,  Thos.  A.  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants  of  the  Eastern  Rocky 
Mountain  Region  (1898). 

Grasses  and  Forage  Plants  of  the  Dakotas  (1897). 


88 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


INDEX. 


Page  I 

Agropyron  divergens 8,  17 

“ Gmelinii 18 

“ occidentale 7,  8,  17 

“ “ molle 17 

“ pseudorepens 18 

“ Richardsoni 18 

“ tenerum 11,  18 

“ violaceum 18 

Agrostis  alba 18,  25 

“ asperifolia 19 

“ hiemalis 8,  19,  29 

Alkali  flats 8 

Alkali  meadow  grass 8.  10,'^25,  33 

Alopecurus  geniculatus 19 

occidentalis 11,  20 

Andropogon  scoparius 20 

Aristida  longiseta  robusta 20 

Artesian  water  . . , 5,  6 

Avena  Americana 21 

Badlands 7 

Beckmannia  erucaeformis 10,21 

Benches,  prairie 8 

“ upland 11 

Bibliography 37 

Blue  grama 8,  9.  11,  22,  24,  28,  29 

“ “ Nevada 33 

joint 7,  8,  10,  12,  17 

“ stem,  Colorado 17 

“ little 20 

Bouteloua  oligostachya 8,  9,  22,  24 

Brome  grass,  smooth 11,  22 

western 11,  23 

Bromus  inermis 11,  22 

“ marginatus 23 

“ Porteri 23 

“ Pumijellianus 11,23 

“ Richardsoni ...  . 23 

Buffalo  grass 22 


Page 

Bunch  grass 28 

*•  early  26 

“ “ feather .36 

“ “ pale 11, 33 

^ “ smooth 8,  .33 

wheat  grass 8,17 

Calamagrostis  Canadensis  accumin- 

ata 2.3 

Calamagrostis  hyperborea  Americana  23 
“ “ stenodes  . 24 

“ montanensis 24 

“ purpurascens 24 

“ Suksdorfii 24 

Calamovilfa  longifolia 24 

Canary  grass,  reed ,31 

Carex 13,  24 

Clay 6,  7 

Cord  grass 10,  34 

Crab  grass .33 

Cyperaceae 13,  24 

Danthonia  Californica 2h 

“ intermedia 25 

unispicata 25 

Deschampsia  caespitosa 10,  25 

Distichlis  spicata 7,  8,  25,  29 

Dogtown  grass 20 

Early  bunch  grass 10,  26 

Eatonia  obtusata 10,26 

Economic  considerations 11, 12 

Elymus  Canadensis. 26 

“ condensates 26 

glaucus 11, 18,  27 

“ Macounii 27 

" triticoides 27 

Eriocoma  cuspidata 7.  27 

False  (juack  gra.ss 18 

Feather  grass 7,  .35,  36 


FORAGE  CONDITIONS  OF  CENTRAL  MONTANA.  39 


Page 

Fescue,  red 

28 

“ sheep  

11,28 

“ slender 

....  8,  27,  29 

Festuca  campestris 

11,27 

'•  octofiora 

8,27,29 

ovina 

11,28 

“ rubra 

28 

Foothills 

10 

Foxtail 

29 

floating 

8,19 

“ mountain 

11,20 

Geology 

5,  7 

Gravel 

'. . 6,7 

Grazing  and  tramping 

9 

Hair  grass 

8,19,29 

Hordeum  caespitosum  .... 

29 

jubatum 

8,29,34 

“ pusillum 

8,29 

Indian  millet 

7,27 

Irrigation 

12 

Juncaceae  

1.3,  29 

Juncus 

13 

Juncoides 

13 

June  grass 

7,8 

Rev  to  the  grasses 

13-16 

Koeleria  cristata 

7,8,29 

Little  barley 

8,29 

Meadows 

10 

Meadow  grasses 

8,9,33 

“ grass,  alkali 

. . 7,  8,  25,  29 

“ “ foul 

10,31 

“ “ reed  

.31 

wood 

Melica  cepacea 

30 

Mountain  foxtail 

20 

Xjarks 

11 

“ timothy 

11 

“ rye  grass 

27 

Muhlenbergia  racemosa. . . 

Page 

Needle  grass 8,35 

Needles,  Devil’s 35 

Oat  grass,  American 21 

“ Californian 25 

“ downy 11,  36 

“ wild 25 

Pale -bunch  grass 10 

Panicularia  Americana 10,31 

nervata 10,  31 

Parks 11 

Phalaris  arundinacea 10,31 

Phleum  alpinum  11, 32 

“ pratense 11,32 

Physiography 5-7 

Plant  formations 7,  11 

Poa  laevigata 8,  33 

“ lucida 11, 33 

“ nemoralis 11, 33 

“ Nevadensis 33 

“ rupicola 33 

Porcupine  grass 35 

Prairie  benches 8 

“ June  grass 8,9,29 

“ rush  grass 10,35 

Puccinellia  airoides 8, 10,  33 

Quack  grass,  false 18 

Red  top 18,  25 

Reed  canary  grass 10,11,31 

“ meadow  grass 10,  30 

Rough-leaved  bent-grass 19 

“ . .salt-grass 10 

Rushes 10,12,24,29 

Rush-grass,  prairie 7,  35 

“ sand 35 

Rye  grass,  Canadian 26 

“ giant 26 

“ mountain 11,  27 

“ Macoun’s 27 

Salt -grass : . . . 7.8,25,29. 

“ rough-leaved 8,  34 


40 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


j 


Page 

Sand  grass,  big 24 

“ rush  grass 35 

Satin  grass 30 

Schedonardus  paniculatus 33 

Sedges 8,10,12,24 

Sitanion 33 

Slough  grass 10,  21,  24 

Snow  grass 11,27 

Spartina  cynosuroides 10,34 

Sporobolus  asperifolius 8,10,34 

“ brevifolius 10,35 

“ cyptandrus 35 

Squirrel-tail  grass 8,  29, 34 

Stipa  comata..- ' 8,35 

“ Richardson! 35 

“ spartea • 35'' 

Stipa  viridula 7,  36 


Page 

Tickle  grass.  (See  hair  grass) 


Timothy 11,  25,  32.  33 

mountain 11,32 

“ wild .30 

Triple  awn 36 

Trisetum  subspicatum 11,  36  ^ 

Tumbling  grass 2r 

Tussock  grass . . 10,  2;' 

Wheat-grass,  bearded IS 

“ bunch 8,17 

“ short-leaved  . . ' 18 

“ slender II,  18  ; 

“ mountain 1.. 


“ western. (See  blue-jointj 

Wild  rye 27 

Wire  grass 29 


BULLETIN  NO.  37 


AGRICULTURAL 

EXPERIMENT  STATION 


THE  — 


AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  OF  MONTANA. 


PORK  PRODUCTION 

IN  MONTANA.- 


BOZEMAN,  MONTANA,  SEPTEMBER,  1902. 


BOZEMAN  CHRONICLE, 
Bozeman,  Montana, 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

EXPERIMENT  STATION 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor, 

James  Donovan,  Attorney-General, 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction 

J.  M.  Evans 

C.  D.  Leonard 

N.  W.  McConnell 

W.  M.  Johnston 

O.  P.  Chisholm 

J.  G.  McCay 

G.  T.  Paul 

N.  B.  Holter 


Ex-Officio Helena 

Missoula 

Butte 

Helena 

Billings 

Bozeman 

Hamilton 

*. Dillon 

Helena 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President Bozeman 

John  M.  Robinson,  Vice-President Bozeman 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary Bozeman 

Joseph  Kountz Bozeman 

E.  B.  Lamme Bozeman 


STATION  STAFF. 

S.  Fortier,  Ma.  E Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S Chemist 

Robt.  S.  Shaw,  B.  S.  A Agriculturist 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D Botanist 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc Entomologist 


Post  Office,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be 
addressed  to  the  Director, 

Montana  Experiment  Station, 

Bozeman,  Mont. 


NOTICE — The  bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to 
any  citizen  of  Montana  who  sends  his  ,name  and  address  to  the 
Station  for  that  purpose. 


IRE  SOW.  prolific:  type.  (litter  9 PIGS. 
OF  THE  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


POLAND  CHINA  SOW.  LARD  TYPE.  UNPROLIFIC.  (LITTER  3 PIGS.) 
PROPERTY  OF  THE  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Montana  Experiment  Station 


Bulletin  No.  37.  = = September,  1902. 


PORK  PRODUCTION  IN  MONTANA. 

BY  R.  S.  Shaw. 

The  industry  of  pork  production  is  in  great  need  of  encourage- 
ment throughout  the  arid  west,  which  supplies  but  a small  per- 
centage of  the  pork  recjuired  for  home  consumption.  Western 
towns  and  cities  are  in  large  measure  supplied  with  cured  pork 
from  the  great  packing  houses  of  the  east,  with  a product  from 
the  corn  producing  regions.  There  is  a great  demand  for  large 
quantities  of  cured  pork  in  Montana.  The  occupations  and  condi- 
tions surrounding  the  people  are  such  that  large  quantities  of 
cured  meat  must  be  used  of  which  pork  is  the  chief.  Ranchmen, 
stockmen,  railroad  and  canal  builders,  miners,  prospectors  and 
campers  living  in  places  remote  from  the  large  centers  can  neither 
obtain  nor  handle  fresh  meats  to  good  advantage.  In  many  in- 
stances our  farmers  still  continue  to  purchase  cured  bacon  and 
ham,  bearing  packing  house  brands,  from  local  merchants  instead 
of  producing  them  on  the  farm.  Because  of  these  practices  our 
western  farmers  are  failing  to  obtain  a large  revenue  which  they 
could  so  easily  secure.  Pork  cannot  be  produced  more  cheaply  or 
of  better  quality  than  in  the  irrigated  regions  of  the  arid  west. 
Hog  raising  has  been  made  possible  by  the  opening  up  of  agricul- 
tural lands  which  are  made  to  produce  enormous  quantities  of 
cereals  and  legumes  by  means  of  irrigation. 

SUITABILITY  OF  CLIMATE. 

The  climate  of  the  arid  west  is  characterized  by  a light,  dry  air, 
prevailing  sunshine  and  moderate  temperature.  No  better  combi- 
nation of  conditions  exists  for  the  healthy  and  rapid  development 
of  the  pig.  The  cultivated  regions  are  in  general  found  between 
the  altitudes  of  2000  and  5500  feet,  where  little  or  no  damp, 
cloudy  weather. occurs.  These  atmospheric  conditions  combined 
with  an  almost  continued  sunshine  throughout  the  winter  season 


4 


THE  MONTANA  EXPERIA/IENT  STATION. 


lessens,  in  fact  almost  entirel3"  prevents,  the  occurrence  of  the  many 
pig  troubles  so  disastrous  in  the  more  humid  regions. 
Throughout  these  regions  extremes  of  temperature  are  not  preva- 
lent during  long  periods  of  time,  and  being  short  lived  are  easily 
endured  because  of  the  lack  of  humidity.  In  general  the  climatic 
conditions  are  such  that  the  pig  can  run  out  of  doors  throughout 
almost  the  entire  3"ear,  the  snow  fall  being  very  light.  These  con- 
ditions tend  toward  vigor  and  healthfulness  and  permit  of  eco- 
nomic methods  of  feeding.  Everywhere  it  is  possible  to  provide 
abundant  supplies  of  clear  sparkling  water  from  the  mountain 
streams.  A number  of  instances  have  been  noticed  in-which  breed- 
ing hogs  imported  from  the  corn  belt  have  brought  hog  cholera 
among  our  western  bred  stocks.  In  one  case  60  per  cent,  of  the 
imported  hogs  died  while  only  one  mature  hog  out  of  twenty 
Montana  grown  ones  succumbed,  although  all  were  effected.  In 
this  we  have  strong  evidences  of  the  constitutional  vigor  produced 
b\"  the  climatic  and  food  conditions. 

SUITABILITY  OF  FOOD  PRODUCTS. 

The  pork  producing  foods  grown. in  the  arable  regions  of  Mon- 
tana consists  of  cereals,  legumes  and  root  crops,  the  marvelous 
productiveness  of  which  has  been  heretofore  described.  The  cereal 
grains  include  brewing  and  white  and  black  hulless  barley,  spring 
club  wheat,  rye  and  oats.  One  legume,  viz.  peas,  can  be  universal- 
ly grown  in  great  profusion.  Forage  crops,  alfalfa,  red,  alsike 
and  white  clovers,  peas,  winter  and  spring  rye  and  various  grain 
mixtures  produce  an  abundant  variet}^  of  pasture  throughout  M\j 
eight  months  of  the  year.  Of  the  root  crops  best  suited,  sugar 
beets,  mangolds  and  carrots  can  all  be  raised.  While  the  great 
variety  enumerated  cannot  all  be  grown  in  each  cultivated  section, 
still,  there  is  no  farm  territor3^  in  Montana  where  a suitable  com- 
bination of  these  cannot  be  grown.  It  is  true  that  winter  rye  can 
be  universally  grown,  and  no  section  need  be  without  some  one  or 
more  of  the  legumes,  cereals  and  root  crops.  It  therefore  follows 
that  excellenth"  balanced  rations  can  be  secured  generally  which 
will  produce  a good  cpialit3^  of  pork,  rapidly,  cheaph"  and  economi- 
cally. It  ma3"  appear  to  those  from  the  corn  belt  that  the  inabilit3" 
to  grow  corn  in  most  parts  of  Montana  is  a strong  argument 
against  the  business.  In  peas,  however,  we  have  an  excellent  sub- 
stitute for  corn.  Bulletins  34  of  the  Utah  Station  by  Mills,  and  38 


PORK  PRODUCTION. 


Bulletin  37. 


o 


of  the  South  Dakota  Station  by  Chilcott,  both  report  peas  super- 
ior to  eorn  for  fattening  swine.  Barley  is  reported  by  the  famous 
Danish  pork  producers  to  be  the  best  single  grain  for  the  produc- 
tion of  high  grade  bacon.  Director  Henry  of  the  Wisconsin  Sta- 
tion gives  the  following  comparison  between  corn  and  barley  as 
pork  producers,  viz.: 

471  pounds  of  barley  meal  produced  100  pounds  of  gain. 

435  pounds  of  corn  meal  produced  100  pounds  of  gain. 

Wheat — The  results  of  several  stations  show  wheat  and  corn 
to  be  nearly  equal  in  pork  producing  value  with  a very  slight  ad- 
vantage in  favor  of  corn. 

Oats — According  to  Henr3^’s  “Feeds  and  Feeding,”  the  Massa- 
chusetts Station  reports  that  20  per  cent,  more  oat  feed  than  corn 
meal  was  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain.  Oats  are  more 
valuable  as  an  adjunct  to  lighten  heavier  rations  than  when  used 
alone. 

R\'e — The  results  of  comparative  work  shows  rye  and  barley 
to  have  about  equal  feeding  values.  These  facts  tend  to  prove  that 
our  grain  foods  are  exceptionally  well  adapted  to  pork  making, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  use  of  these  is  greatl^^  facilitated  b^^  the 
possibility  of  a continuous  suppW  of  nitrogenous  forage  crops  dur- 
ing a long  growing  season,  and  by  root  crops  in  the  winter. 

PREPARING  FEEDING  FOODS. 

The  most  satisfactory  results  have  been  secured  from  grinding 
the  grain  feeds  and  soaking  a short  time  before  feeding.  Under  the 
arid  conditions  the  cereal  grains  become  so  hard  and  flinty  that 
they  cannot  be  fed  whole  with  good  results.  Local  facilities  are 
now  such  that  grains  can  be  ground  at  little  expense.  Where  it  be- 
comes a necessity  to  feed  whole  grain  this  can  be  accomplished  133^ 
scattering  it  on  hard  dry  ground  or  a feeding  floor,  it  will  then  be 
picked  up  little  by  little  and  is  more  likely  to  be  masticated,  where- 
as, if  fed  in  troughs  targe  quantities  are  swallowed,  passing  the  di- 
gestive tract  whole.  Prices  of  labor  are  so  high  as  to  render  the 
cooking  of  either  grains  or  roots  too  expensive.  Root  crops  can 
be  fed  to  good  advantage  raw  except  where  turnips  or  rutabagas 
are  used. 

FORAGE  CROPS. 

The  climatic  conditions  and  capabilities  of  crop  production  are 
such  that  pigs,  old,  young,  breeders  and  fatteners,  can  forage  dur- 


G 


THE  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


in^  fully  two-thirds  of  the  year.  The  secret  of  economy  in  pork 
production  in  Montana,  consists  in  keeping  the  pigs  foraging. 
Even  though  some  expert  investigations  reveal  the  fact  that  a pig 
enclosed  in  a pen  will  make  a greater  gain  from  a given  number  of 
pounds  of  food  than  the  pig  running  at  large,  still,  it  will  pay  bet- 
ter because  of  the  cost  of  labor  to  let  the  pig  go  to  the  food  than  to 
bring  the  food  to  the  pig.  A succession  of  forage  crops  must  be 
provided  for,  which  means  that  from  three  to  four  lots  should  be 
fenced  off  near  the  hog  houses.  If  alfalfa  alone  is  relied  on  this 
should  be  divided  into  two  parts  to  permit  of  recuperation  and  ir- 
rigation. Forage  crops  may  be  relied  on  for  use  in  the  following 
order,  winter  rye  in  April,  alfalfa  in  May,  the  clovers  in  June,  grain 
mixtures  in  July,  and  peas  from  August  to  the  setting  in  of  winter. 
These  are  the  periods  at  which  each  of  the  crops  named  come  into 
use.  Of  these  crops  alfalfa  is  one  of  the  most  important  because 
of  its  permanency;  where  it  cannot  be  grown  some  one  ofthe  clovers 
is  sure  to  answer.  Alsike  clover  is  well  adapted  to  moist  situa- 
tions and  withstands  very  severe  grazing.  White  clover  will  grow 
in  a still  wetter  soil.  Through  the  use  of  a lil^eral  amount  of  wa- 
ter not  more  than  four  or  five  acres  of  forage  is  necessary  to  pro- 
vide green  food  for  a herd  of  from  40  to  50  pigs  of  all  ages,  from 
the  opening  up  of  spring  till  the  pea  crop  and  grain  stubbles  become 
accessible.  Young  growing  pigs  should  not  be  required  to  forage 
for  a living;  a one-third  grain  ration  should  be  supplied  in  order 
to  secure  a proper  growth  and  development.  Foraging  alone  will 
only  provide  maintenance  and  a small  gain  in  live  weight.  The 
light  grain  ration  advocated  will  materially  assist  in  producing 
renumerative  gains  and  prepare  the  3^oung  pig  for  fattening  on  the 
stubbles  or  peas  in  the  autumn. 

METHODS  OF  FEEDING. 

THE  BROOD  SOW. 

The  brood  sow  can  forage  the  greater  ])art  of  the  ^^ear.  During 
the  later  stages  of  pregnancy  a little  grain  food  should  be  supplied, 
the  amount  depending  upon  her  condition  of  flesh;  this,  however, 
will  not  be  necessar}^  during  the  time  she  is  gleaning  from  the  grain 
fields.  The  forage  in  general  being  leguminous  an3"  one  of  the  cer- 
•eal  grains  may  be  used  as  supplemcntar3"  food.  While  nursing  the 
litter  access  should  always  be  given  to  the  forage  grounds  when 
possible,  and  a liberal  grain  ration  fed.  Immediately  after  farrow- 


Bulletin  37. 


PORK  PRODUCTION. 


7 


ing  a light  ration  of  sloppy  feed  consisting  of  skim  milk,  shorts, 
bran  and  oats  is  most  satisfactory:  the  heavier  grain  foods  can  be 
gradually  added.  During  the  period  of  rest  or  earl3^  pregnancy  in 
the  winter  months  the  brood  sow  can  be  maintained  on  sugar 
beets,  carrots  or  mangolds  with  a one-third  grain  ration  added. 
Spring  farrowing  has  hitherto  been  favored,  but  the  climatic  and 
food  conditions  are  such  that  fall  litters  can  be  handled  almost 
equally  well. 

YOUNG  AND  STORE  PIGS. 

These  should  have  constant  access  to  forage  grounds  in  the 
summer  season,  and  sheltered  yards  in  the  winter.  When  four 
weeks  old  they  will  take  a little  sweet  skim  milk  to  which  some 
shorts  or  middlings  may  be  gradually  added,  and  later  some 
ground  wheat.  A light  grain  ration  should  be  supplied  the  young 
growing  pig  in  addition  to  the  forage  throughout  the  forage  seas- 
on but  may  be  entirely  cut  off  as  soon  as  the  pigs  reach  the  pea  or 
grain  stubble  fields.  During  the  winter  season  the  shotes  should 
have  access  to  stacked  alfalfa,  clover,  or  peas,  from  which  the3^  will 
secure  a large  amount  of  food.  Sugar  beets  should  also  be  supplied. 

THE  FATTENING  HOGS. 

This  process  is  most  economically  accomplished  b3^  finishing  in 
the  pea  lots  or  grain  stubble.  The  pigs  should  be  turned  on  the 
peas  as  soon  as  the  ]3ods  are  filled  and  the  peas  begin  to  hard- 
en. If  sufficient  pigs  are  used,  say  '10  per  acre,  not  a pea  will  be 
wasted  and  even  a portion  of  the  vines  consumed.  One  acre  of 
peas,  producing  at  the  rate  of  35  bushels  per  acre,  which  is  an  aver- 
age for  Montana,  will  provide  a fattening  ration  for  ten  150  to 
200  pound  hogs  for  from  40  to  45  days.  Climatic  conditions  per- 
mit of  pea  harvesting  by  pigs  even  as  late  as  December  1.  This  is 
one  of  the  easiest  ffittening  methods  now  practiced  in  Montana. 
The  area  over  which  peas  can  be  grown  is  verv  large  and  the  time 
of  foraging  so  extended  by  favorable  weatlier  that  the  product 
need  not  all  be  marketed  at  one  time.  In  order,  however,  to  make 
the  best  use  of  forage  conditions,  winter  litters  must  be  raised. 
Pigs  from  spring  litters  do  not  reach  a large  consuming  capacity 
soon  enough  to  take  advantage  of  the  early  forage.  Both  late  fall 
and  early  spring  litters  should  be  raised  in  order  to  get  the  most 
out  of  the  foods  and  the  market  conditions. 

RESULTS  FROM  GLEANING  GRAIN  FIELDS. 

Enormous  quantities  of  pork  could  be  rftade  annually  from  the 
grains  wasted  on  stubble  fields,  large  quantities  of  which  are  lost 
by  “shattering”  under  the  arid  conditions. 


8 


THP:  MOxNTANA  experiaient  station. 


During  a period  of  42  days  extending  from  Oet.  4 to  Nov.  15, 
1901,  the  following  test  was  made  with  pigs  gleaning  from  grain 
stubble  from  which  crops  of  oats,  wheat,  barley  and  peas  had  been 
removed.  At  the  beginning  of  the  test  the  24  pigs  weighed  2731, 
and  at  the  close  3608  pounds.  Thus  in  42  days  24  pigs  made  an 
increase  in  live  weight  of  874  pounds,  which  amount  valued  at  514 
cents,  the  prevailing  price  at  the  time,  gave  a return  of  $46.04. 
From  this  amount  $3.28  is  deducted  for  feed  during  a few  days 
when  the  ground  was  covered  with  snow,  there  was  then  left  a 
clear  profit  of  $42.76.  The  percentage  increase  in  live  weight  was 
32.1  per  cent,  as  compared  with  19.2  per  cent,  from  lambs  and 
5.19  per  cent,  from  steers  under  the  same  conditions.  One  hundred 
and  twelve  acres  of  the  station  farm,  consisting  of  meadow  57 
acres,  and  the  balance  of  stubble,  formed  the  run  for  the  24  pigs, 
230  lambs  and  11  steers.  There  are  enormous  areas  in  Montana 
which  could  be  put  to  a similiar  use. 

RESULTS  SECURED  FROfl  FEEDING  GRAIN 
VS.  GRAIN  AND  SUGAR  BEETS. 

In  the  spring  of  1902,  two  lots  of  four  pigs  each  were  fed  for 
50  days,  one  on  exclusive  grain  ration,  the  other  receiving  both 
grain  and  sugar  beets,  with  the  following  residts.  The  four  hogs 
receiving  grain  made  an  increase  of  316  pounds  or  79  pounds  each, 
making  an  average  daily  gain  of  1.58  pounds.  The  cost  of  pro- 
duction per  pound  increase  with  this  lot  was  4.6  cents.  The  four 
hogs  receiving  grain  and  sugar  beets  made  an  increase  of  328 
pounds  or  82  pounds  each,  making  an  average  daih^  gain  of  1.64 
pounds.  The  cost  of  production  in  this  case  was  3.8  cents  per 
pound.  The  former  lot  received  a heavy  grain  ration  of  9.11 
pounds  ea^h  per  day.  The  latter  consumed  6.65  pounds  of  grain 
and  4.58  pounds  of  sugar  beets  per  head  per  day.  The  financial 
outcome  of  this  test  resulted  in  a net  profit  of  $14.12  or  33  per 
cent,  on  the  investment  in  50  days.  Previous  tests  conducted  in 
1900  gave  the  following  results: 


Cost  of  pork  per  pouud  increase  from  grain  only ^^3.33 

Cost  of  pork  per  pound  increase  from  grain  and  sugar  beet^ 2.85 

k'ood  required  per  pouud  increase  from  grain  only 5.32  lbs. 

Grain  required  per  pound  increase  from  grain  and  sugar  beets,  4.26  lbs. 

Net  profit  per  head  from  feeding  grain  only $3.80 

Net  profit  per  head  from  feeding  grain  and  sugar  beets 2.28 


One  acre  can  be  made  to  produce  from  15  to  20  tons  of  sugar 
beets  at  a cost  not  exceeding  $30  per  acre.  If  for  any  reason  these 


Bulletin  37. 


PORK  PRODUCTION. 


9 


cannot  be  grown  carrots  or  mangolds  can  be  made  to  take  their 
plaee.  Some  insect  pests  whieh  prey  upon  the  young  sugar  beets 
and  mangold  plants  will  not  harm  the  carrots.  These  roots  can 
be  fed  whole  and  raw,  at  least  expense,  with  satisfactory  results. 
The  sugar  beet  is  the  best  keeper  of  the  three. 

THE  KIND  OF  HOGS  TO  BREED. 

Our  conditions  are  well  able  to  support  large  framed  hogs 
whieh  will  mature  moderately  early.  Strength  of  bone  is  desirable 
but  not  so  necessary  as  in  some  other  regions.  The  brood  sow 
should  be  long  bodied  and  rangy  with  good  length  and  depth  of 
coupling;  such  a one  is  more  sure  to  be  prolific,  a good  mother,  and 
a good  nurse,  than  the  chunky,  compact,  fine  boned,  strictly  lard 
type.  These  desirable  features  are  found  par  excellence  in  the  im- 
proved English  Berkshire  and  good  results  can  be  secured  from  the 
large,  rangy,  strong  types  of  Poland  Chinas.  Many  of  our  breeders 
are  making  serious  mistakes  by  breeding  immature  animals  and 
also  by  inbreeding.  Let  the  young  sow  reach  ten  or  twelve 
months  of  age  before  producing  her  first  litter,  and  then  do  not  de- 
stroy her  as  long  as  she  continues  to  produce  good  ones.  Inbreed- 
ing has  arisen  beeause  of  the  difficulty  and  cost  of  importingboars; 
injudiciously  practiced,  rapid  deterioration  of  form,  constitutional 
vigor  and  feeding  qualities  is  sure  to  ensue. 

‘ HOG  HOUSES. 

Various  improvised  and  inexpensive  shelters  are  being  used, 
from  the  dugout  in  the  hillside  to  the  pole  shelter  covered  with 
straw  and  the  building  made  of  logs.  While  any  of  these  may  pro- 
vide shelter  during  the  milder  portion  of  the  year,  their  use  can  in 
no  wise  prove  satisfactory  throughout.  They  are  too  apt  to  be 
dark,  damp,  filthy  and  draughty.  The  pole  structure  with  a straw 
covering  may  be  used  as  a temporary  shelter  or  for  sleeping  quarters 
for  feeding  hogs  during  the  milder  season,  but  for  breeding  quarters 
their  use  cannot  be  recommended.  The  log  building  is  in  most 
common  use.^  Its  greatest  fault  is  its  inability  to  retain  the  chink- 
ing. As  a result  the  structure  soon  beeomes  open  and  draughty. 

A properly  planned  and  well  construeted  frame  building  gives 
the  best  results;  its  use  is  almost  absolutely  necessain^  where  win- 
ter breeding  is  practiced.  The  building  site  should  be  high  and  dry 
so  that  surface  water  will  drain  away  at  all  times.  If  poSvsible  the 
location  should  be  in  close  proximity  to  the  small  fields  whieh  are 


10 


THE  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


to  produce  the  forage  crop.  If  a natural  water  supply  can  be  di- 
verted so  as  to  pass  through  the  yards  so  mueh  the  better. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  hog  house  should  face  the  south,  and 
that  each  pen  should  open  into  a small  enclosure  fenced  off,  prefer- 
ably with  wire  netting.  By  this  means  when  a number  of  sows  are 
eonfined  with  young  pigs  during  the  winter  season  they  ean  have 
aceess  to  protected,  sunny  yards. 

The  size  of  the  building  will  be  determined  by  the  number  of 
brood  sows  and  boars  to  be  kept.  As  regards  shape  a long  nar- 
row building  is  preferable,  of  such  proportions,  for  instance,  as  16  x 
48.  In  such  a structure  a 31/^  foot  passage  way  should  run  from 
end  to  end  along  the  north  side  of  the  building,  thus  leaving  all  the 
pens  on  the  south  side.  Pens  8 x 12V2  will  furnish  room  for  a 
brood  sow  and  litter  or  several  fattening  pigs,  according  to  size. 
One  pen  of  twice  the  capacity  should  be  constructed  to  furnish 
sleeping  quarters  for  a larger  number  of  animals,  although  an  ex- 
tra shed  could  be  construeted  cheaply  to  protect  the  animals  dur- 
ing the  pasture  season.  Each  pen  should  be  provided  with  a small 
hinged  door  on  the  south,  and  directly  above  it  a window.  Not 
more  than  two  windows  will  be  required  on  the  north  side.  The 
troughs  should  be  placed  direetly  under  the  partition  adjoining  the 
passage  way,  and  this  partition  so  constructed  as  to  swing  from 
the  top.  In  this  way  the  pigs  can  be  excluded  from  the  trough 
while  the  feed  is  being  supplied.  The  swinging  partition  is  held  in 
place  by  means  of  a slide  in  the  center  which  works  up  and  down 
thus  resting  on  either  side  of  the  trough  as  desired.  Less  food  is 
wasted  when  the  flat  bottomed  troughs  are  used.  Because  of  its 
splintery  nature  hemlock  makes  a durable  trough,  the  pigs  not 
caring  to  chew  it. 

Concrete  overlaid  with  cement  furnishes  a good  flooring,  its 
only  fault  being  that  it  is  cold.  This  may  be  overcome  by  over- 
laying a small  portion  with  plank  for  a bedding  place.  Plank 
floors  give  good  satisfaction  but  should  be  made  water  tight,  or 
else  much  filth  will  work  through  and  produce  unsanitary 
conditions. 

One  or  two  ventilators  should  extend  from  within  a few  feet  of 
the  floor  up  through  the  roof;  in  many  cases  these  do  not  extend 
below  the  ceiling  and  as  a result  remove  only  the  upper  warm  air, 
leaving  the  foul,  heavier  air  below.  If  necessary  to  secure  warmth 
the  inside  may  be  lined  and  the  spaces  between  the  studs  filled 
with  sawdust  or  chaft*.  The  chief  essentials  of  a good  hog  house 
are  warmth,  sunlight,  dryness  and  good  ventilation  without  cold 
draughts. 


BULLETIN  NO.  38. 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

\ 

Experiment  Station 

CTF  THE^  ....  i 

i 

AGRICIILTIRAL  COLIEGE  OF  MONTANA. 


FOOD  ADULTERATION. 


BOZEMAN,  MONTANA,  OCTOBER  1,  1903. 


1902. 

The  Avant  Courier  PubliAhin^  Go. 
Bozeman,  Montana. 


riontana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor  1 

James  Donovan,  Attorney  General  >ex-officio 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction  J 

N.  W.  McConnell 

M.  Johnson 

O.  P.  Chisholm 

J.  G.  McCay 

G.  T.  Paul 

N.  B.  Holter 

J.  M,  Evans 

C.  Leonard 


Helena 

Helena 

....Billings 

.Bozeman 

Hamilton 

Dillon 

Helena 

.Missoula 
Butte 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President Bozeman 

John  M.  Robinson,  Vice  President Bozeman 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary Bozeman 

Joseph  Kountz Bozeman 

E.  B.  Lamme Bozeman 


STATION  STAFF. 

Samuel  Fortier,  Ma.  E Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer  ■ 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F,  C.  S Chemist  ; 

Robt.  S.  Shaw,  B.  S.  A Agriculturist  , 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D Botanist  •: 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc Entomologist 

Postoffice,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be 
addressed  to  the  Director, 

Montana  Experiment  Station, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 

Notice. — The  Bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to  4 
any  citizen  of  Montana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the 
Station  for  that  purpose.  1 


Montana  Experiment  Station. 

Bulletin  No.  38  - - - - October,  i902 


FOOD  ADULTERATION. 


F.  W.  TRAPHAGEN. 


As  a class  the  Montana  Farmers  should  be  more  deeply  interested 
|in  the  subject  of  the  adulteration  of  food  and  in  the  remedies  for  ex- 
isting conditions,  than  any  other  group  of  citizens  of  our  common- 
wealth. The  reasons  for  the  existence  of  this  interest  are  twofold, 
namely,  because  as  producers  they  suffer  greatly  by  having  their 
food  products  come  into  competition  with  the  cheaper  spurious 
products  which  so  completely  flood  the  markets  today,  and  because 
as  consumers  they  are  constantly  buying  foods  which  are  not  true 
to  name,  but  are  either  partly  or  entirely  made  up  by  the  substitution 
of  cheaper  materials. 

Fortunately  the  stress  of  the  competition  of  low  grade  imitations 
with  our  own  farm  crops  has  not  yet  been  felt  to  any  great  extent. 
That  our  farmers  have  this  competition  to  meet  in  the  future  unless 
remedies  are  enacted  for  their  relief,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  al- 
read3y  on  a very  small  scale,  the  manufacture  of  preserves  and  jellies 
has  been  undertaken  near  Missoula,  and  the  sale  of  these  high  grade 
goods  hss  been  scriousl}^  affected  b}"  the  presence  of  so  much  of  the 
cheaper  “compounds”  which  are  so  plentiful  in  all  our  markets. 

Nature  of  Food  Adulteration. 

For  our  purpose  it  wdll  be  sufificient  to  divide  the  adulteration  of 
foods  into  two  groups,  first  those  which  affect  the  pocket-book,  and 
second  those  which  affect  the  health. 

In  the  first  group  we  would  place  all  cases  of  the  substitution,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  of  cheaper,  though  wholesome,  articles  for  the  one 
which  is  presumably  bought.  Examples  are  the  use  of  glucose  for 
ma])le  syrup,  or  for  New  Orleans  molasses,  or  its  substitution  for 
the  more  expensive  and  sweeter  sugar  which  is  used  in  the  higher 
grade  jams,  preserves  and  jellies.  Corn  meal  is  frecjuentlv  used  to 
adulterate  wheat  flour;  cotton  seed  oil,  peanut  oil  and  sesame  oil 
often  masquerade  as  olive  oil,  ground  spices  are  composed  largely 
of  ground  cocoanut  shells,  and  similar  substitutions  are  made  for 
other  food  materials. 

Under  the  head  of  unwholesome  adulterations  would  be  placed 
substances  which  cause  derangements  of  the  digestive  or  other  func~ 


4 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


tions  of  the  human  economy.  Examples  of  these  are  the  ground 
rock  which  was  sold  by  the  York  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Greenville, 
N.  C.,  in  carload  lots  for  the  adulteration  of  wheat  flour.  It  is  at 
once  apparent  that  this  material  can  have  no  nutritive  value  and  that 
it  further  must  tax  the  digestive  organs  greatly  to  effect  its  elimina- 
tion. 

WT  have  been  called  a “nation  of  dyspeptics,’'  that  this  name  is 
justly  applied  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  use  of  food  preservatives, 
which  is  prohibited  in  several  foreign  countries,  is  not  restricted  in 
this  country  except  in  the  few  states  having  effective  food  laws. 

The  case  against  these  food  preservatives  is  not  as  complete  as  it 
might  be,  but  in  the  event  of  a reasonable  doubt  it  is  best  to  be  on 
the  safe  side.  Tlie  food  preservatives  in  use  at  the  present  day  are 
powerful  antiseptics  and  for  that  reason  have  a decided  restraining 
effect  upon  digestion.  The  question  of  the  physiological  effect  of  the 
extremely  small  quantities  of  any  of  these  preservatives  that  would  be 
taken  with  food  when  the  minimum  amount  necessary  for  its  pres- 
ervation is  used,  is  very  important.  It  is  probable  that  in  such  cases 
the  vast  majority  of  consumers  would  not  be  harmed.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  case  of  children  or  invalids  much  harm  might  result 
•even  with  the  smallest  amounts  of  antiseptics.  Where  the  use  of 
such  drugs  as  these  preservatives  is  contra-indicated,  it  should  be  at 
least  possible  to  avoid  their  presence  in  the  foods  consumed. 

The  arguments  against  the  use  of  chemical  preservatives  apply 
with  almost  equal  force  to  the  artificial  colors  which  are  used  so  large- 
ly to  improve  the  appearance  of  inferior  goods.  The  testimony  of 
'experts  on  physiological  chemistry  given  before  the  Committee  on 
Manufactures  of  the  United  States  Senate  in  its  investigation  of  this 
matter,  shows  the  prevailing  opinion  of  those  best  qualified  to  testify 
on  this  subject. 

A portion  of  this  testimony  is  given  in  the  Seventh  Annual  Report 
of  the  Montana  Bureau  of  Agriculture,  Labor  and  Industry,  pages 
499 — 507,  and  our  readers  are  referred  to  this  report. 

The  Remedy 

After  a futile  attempt  to  secure  the  passage  of  a measure  by  our 
legislature  for  the  protection  of  the  citizens  of  our  commonwealth 
we  have  reached  the  conclusion  that  the  best  way  to  secure  relief 
is  through  the  enactment  of  a measure  by  Congress. 

The  reason  for  this  change  of  base  on  our  part  is  primarily  because 
such  a measure,  as  was  considered  by  our  legislature,  can  only  be- 
come effective  by  holding  our  own  dealers  responsible  for  the  charac- 
ter of  the  foods  they  offer  for  sale.  In  the  nature  of  things  we  can- 
not successfully  legislate  against  ])roducers  or  jobbers  who  reside 
in  another  state  than  our  own.  At  the  same  time  there  is  little 
<loubt  but  that  our  dealers  could  ])rotect  themselves  by  exacting 
guarantees  from  tlieir  supply  houses.  That  the  wholesalers 
are  willing  to  give  such  guarantees  we  have  been  assured  by  the 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


5 


! representatives  of  many  of  the  firms  doing  business  with  Montana 
; retailers. 

I Yet,  the  plea  that  the  innocent  (?)  Montana  merchant  would  bear 
' the  burden  of  prosecution,  or  persecution,  as  some  of  the  grocery- 
I men  lobbyists  chose  to  put  it,  proved  a very  effective  argument  with 
the  members  of  the  last  Montana  House.  The  difficulties  of  the 
administration  of  such  a law  as  was  proposed  would  have  been  great 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  work  can  be  much  better  done  by  the 
Bureau  of  Chemistry  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Wash- 
ington than  by  the  individual  states.  Of  course  a national-  law  can 
only  deal  with  interstate  commerce  in  such  goods,  and  with  viola- 
tions in  the  District  of  Columbia  and  in  the  Territories,  hence  the 
states  will  have  to  take  care  of  all  such  violations  of  food  laws  as 
occur  within  their  own  limits.  This  phase  of  the  problem  need  not 
trouble  us  for  many  years,  for  so  far  as  we  know,  our  own  food 
products  thus  far  have  been  above  suspicion,  and  we  believe  will 
remain  so  for  many  years.  A national  pure  food  measure  which 
we  believe  to  be  necessary  to  supplement  the  laws  already  in  force 
in  some  states,  and  to  afford  protection  to  citizens  of  states  having 
no  laws  on  this  subject,  would  be  a boon  to  the  farmer  when  he  is 
considered  either  as  a producer  or  as  a consumer.  The  bills  before 
the  last  session  of  Congress  known  as  the  Hansbrough  Bill  in  the 
Senate,  and  the  Hepburn  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  seem  to 
be  perfectly  fair  in  every  respect,  and  had  the  endorsement  of  numer- 
ous organizations  which  have  no  private  '‘axes  to  grind.” 

The  text  of  the  Brosius  Bill  may  be  found  on  pages  4S9 — 492, 
Seventh  Annual  Report  Montana  Bureau  of  Agriculture.  This  bill 
is  practically  identical  with  the  other  bills  mentioned. 

Considered  briefly  in  their  essential  details  they  place  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  law  in  the  hands  of  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture, with  the  details  of  administration  given  to 
the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  which  for  ■ years  under 
the  lead  of  the  Chief  Chemist,  has  been  making  exhaustive  researches 
along  all  the  lines  involved  in  the  successful  enforcement  of  an  anti- 
adulteration law. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  there  is  no  laboratory  nor  corps  of  chemists 
so  well  fitted  for  such  work  as  that  to  be  found  in  the  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

The  bills  make  no  prohibitions,  but  simply  demand  that  articles  be 
sold  on  their  merits  for  what  they  are,  and  that  they  do  not  masquer- 
ade as  something  better. 

The  correct  locality  of  production  must  appear,  so  that  a state 
producing  a particularly  high  grade  of  flour  pr  su])erfine  butter,  may 
not  be  robbed  of  its  honors  by  the  false  branding  of  other  flour  or 
butter,  perhaps  pure  enough,  but  still  decidedly  inferior,  and  pro- 
duced in  some  state  which  has  yet  to  make  a record  in  these  lines. 
These  matters  are  of  immediate  concern  to  farmers. 


6 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


The  opponents  of  these  bills  offer  arg-uments,  or  rather  an  argu- 
ment, winch  should  disgrace  any  men.  They  protest  that  to  compel 
them  to  lable  glucose  syrup  correctly,  and  prevent  them  calling  it  ma- 
ple syrup,  is  an  infringement  of  personal  liberty  and  an  interference 
with  their  Constitutional  rights.  How  a man  can  expose  himself  to 
the  supreme  contempt  of  his  fellow  men  by  such  an  argument,  is 
beyond  our  comprehension.  Yet  this  is  precisely  what  many  did 
in  the  public  hearing  of  the  supporters  and  opponents  of  these  bills, 
when  they  were  before  the  respective  committees  having  them  in 
charge. 

Eor  the  protection  of  our  agricultural  and  horticultural  interests, 
it  would  be  well  if  the  numerous  organizations,  representing  these 
industries,  would  become  familiar  with  these  measures  now  before 
Congress,  and  would  use  their  influence  to  secure  the  passage  of  some 
suitable  bill,  such  as  the  ones  before  mentioned. 

The  Conditions  in  Montana. 

It  will  not  be  surprising  to  learn  that,  because  of  the  absence  of 
protective  measures  of  any  kind,  adulterated  food  is  common 
in  Montana. 

The  adulterations  are  of  both  kinds,  the  deleterious  and  the  fraudu- 
lent. Jams,  jellies,  preserves  and  catsups  are  found  very  generally 
colored  with  coal  tar  dyes,  and  when  this  is  done  it  is  almost  always 
an  evidence  that  it  is  simply  done  to  hide  another  adulterant,  starch 
paste,  glucose  or  other  cheap  substitutes  for  the  real  food.  When 
a preservative  such  as  salicylic  acid  is  used,  its  presence  may  be 
assumed  to  indicate  the  presence  of  glucose,  or  some  other  more 
readily  fermentable  substitute  in  place  of  a usual  constituent. 

As  a matter  of  fact,  the  two  substances  just  mentioned  were  very 
commonly  found,  and  in  addition,  starch  paste  and  glucose  were 
their  frequent  companions.  In  the  case  of  catsups  the  preservative 
is  used  mainly,  not  because  of  any  substitution, 
but  because  the  catsup  is  particularly  subject  to  fermentation  on 
account  of  the  manner  of  using  this  condiment. 

Vinegar  was  usually  found  sufficiently  sour  to  pass  muster  in  any 
place  but  its  origin  was  frequently  doubtful,  and  rarely  was  it  made 
from  apple  juice. 

To  show  how  effective  a national  law  may  prove,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  mention  our  experience  in  seeking  oleomargarine  in  the 
Montana  markets.  While  it  is  known  that  it  is  bought  in  the  origi- 
nal packages  for  sheep  camps,  and  possibly  for  grading  crews,  and 
in  a few  other  cases,  we  suspected  it  might  be  on  sale  on  the  open 
market  as  butter.  We  were  assured  by  the  collector  of  internal 
revenue  that  none  was  retailed  in  Montana,  but  we  wished  to  deter- 
mine for  ourselves  how  true  this  statement  was.  With  this  end  in 
view  we  hired  a small  boy  to  buy  for  us  in  many  stores  the  cheap- 
est butter  offered  for  sale.  To  our  great  surprise,  while  of  course  the 
samples  were  not  the  highest  grade  of  butter,  yet  not  one  of  the  whole 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


7 


lot  was  anything  but  butter.  There  was  no  evidence  of  the  presence 
of  lard  or  oleomargarine  in  any  one  of  the  samples. 

Jams,  Jellies  and  Preserves. 

Probably  no  class  of  food  materials  is  more  generally  adulterated 
than  the  jams,  jellies  and  preserves.  It  is  possible  to  get  samples 
purporting  to  be  one  of  these  preserved  fruit  products  which  contains 
no  fruit  whatever.  We  have  found  samples  in  this  state  which  con- 
tained glucose,  starch  paste,  salicylic  acid,  a coal  tar  dye  and  some 
seeds  which  are  likely  the  seeds  of  grass  rather  than  of  fruit.  This 
comprised  the  contents  of  one  of  the  jars  of  jam  which  we  examined. 
In  another  series  of  jams  there  was  a small  amount  of  fruit  in  such 
condition  as  would  allow  of  its  easy  recognition,  but  the  great  mass 
of  the  jam  was  made  up  of  glucose  syrup  and  starch  paste,  with  a 
considerable  amount  of  salicylic  acid  add-ed  to  prevent  fermentation. 

See  table  of  analysis  on  following  pages. 

Canned  Soups. 

In  general,  very  little  adulteration  was  found  to  be  present  in  the 
canned  soups  examined.  However,  this  is  true  of  all  the  samples, 
that  a dilution  to  the  extent  indicated  on  the  label  made  an  extremely 
“thin”  soup,  and  at  best  the  food  values  so  obtained  were  extremely 
expensive.  As  a convenient  and  easily  prepared  food,  these  soups 
furnish  an  article  that  is  all  that  could  be  desired,  but  as  a part  of 
an  economical  dietary  they  have  no  place. 

See  table  of  analysis  on  following  pages. 

Tomato  Catsups. 

It  is  doubtful  if  any  article  of  diet  so  generally  contains  preserva- 
tives as  do  tomato  catsups.  The  addition  of  preservatives  to  this 
class  of  foods  becomes  necessar}^  because  the  article  is  not  entirely 
used  up  as  soon  as  opened,  but  may  be  placed  upon  the  t^ble  day 
after  day,  and  a little  used  at  a time.  The  preservatives  used  most 
commonly  are  salicylic  acid  and  benzoic  acid,  but  others  are  occa- 
sionally used. 

See  table  of  analysis  on  following  pages. 

Cream  of  Tartar. 

To  make  use  of  a form  of  expression  commonly  known  as  the 
Irish  bull,  many  of  the  cream  of  tartars  on  sale  in  our  state  are 
something  else;  that  is  they  contain  no  cream  of  tartar  whatever. 
This  is  a condition  that  would  be  remedied  by  the  operation  of  such 
a law  as  is  comprised  in  the  Brosius  bill. 

In  many  instances  our  merchants  know  what  they  are  purchasing, 
and  yet  they  sell  these  inferior  goods  under  false  names,  and  for 
better  materials;  the  price  however,  is  not  lower.  These  so-called 
cream  of  tartars  are  what  arc  known  in  the  trade  as  “C.  T.  S.”  That 
is,  cream  of  tartar  substitute,  an  article  made  up  of  burnt  alum, 
or  acid  calcium  phos])hate,  or  some  other  chea])  acid  constituent  to 
lake  the  place  of  the  higher  priced  cream  of  tartar.  , L^sually  starch. 


8 


AIONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


gypsum  or  some  other  worthless  filler  is  added  in  addition. 

One  of  the  retailers  told  me  he  knew  the  sample  I had  just  secured 
of  him  was  not  cream  of  tartar,  yet  he  did  not  hestitate  to  sell  it 
under  a false  name.  In  many  respects  some  of  our  retailers  are  not 
more  honest  than  the  wholesaler  who  supplies  their  goods. 

Baking  Powder. 

Four  years  ago  when  these  investigations  were  undertaken  for 
the  first  time,  a very  considerable  number  of  low-grade  baking 
powders  were  on  the  market.  This  year  we  have  found  a decided 
improvement,  for  not  only  have  many  of  the  lower  grades  disappear- 
ed from  the  state,  but  in  addition  there  has  been  a decided  im- 
provement in  the  better  grades. 

The  value  of  baking  powder  is  primarily  determined  by  the 
amount  of  gas  eliminated  l3y  it  under  the  conditions  associated  with 
the  kneading  and  baking  of  bread.  There  is  another  condition, 
however,  which  is  very  important,  and  that  is  as  to  how  the  residues 
from  the  baking  powders  exist  in  the  bread,  and  what  the  effect  of 
such  compounds  is  upon  the  human  system.  In  making  bread  with 
yeast  the  principal  products  of  the  action  of  the  veast  plant  are 
the  gas  and  the  alcohol, the  latter  of  which  is  entirely  dissipated  during 
the  baking. 

Cream  of  tartar  baking  powders  leave  in  the  bread  the  double 
tartrate  of  sodium  and  potassium,  which  is  commonly  known  as 
Rochelle  salt,  so  frequently  used  as  a laxative.  The  phosphate 
powders  are  changed  during  the  bread-making  process  into  phos- 
phates of  calcium  and  sodium,  neither  of  which  may  be  considered 
harmful,  and  which  may  even  have  an  important  function  in  bone 
and  tissue  formation. 

Of  another  type  of  baking  powders,  and  of  still  another  to  a less 
degree,  one  cannot  be  quite  so  confident  of  the  harmlessness  of  the 
residual  materials.  These  are  the  alum  and  the  alum  phosphate 
powders.  It  is  true  that  only  small  amounts  of  alum  may  be  in 
a form  capable  of  being  dissolved  by  the  digestive  fluids,  yet,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  know  of  the  harmful  effects  of  large  quantities  of 
soluble  aluminum  salts.  These  salts  have  the  power  of  interfering 
with  the  processes  of  digestion,  and  while  there  is  no  certain  knowl- 
edge that  the  small  amounts  present  in  bread  and  biscuit  made  with 
alum  baking  powders  will  produce  harm,  yet  the  preponderance 
of  o]nnion  of  experts  is  unfavorable  to  their  use. 

See  table  of  analysis  on  following  pages. 

Vinegar. 

It  is  a fact  that  most  of  our  citizens  pay  little  attention  to  the 
nature  of  the  vinegar  they  use.  Vinegar  is  usually  purchased  not 
only  as  a material  for  rendering  other  foods  sour,  but  quite  as  much 
for  the  fine  flavor  possessed  by  the  better  grades.  In  this  country 
preference  is  generally  given  to  the  vinegar  made  from  apple  cider,. 


MONTANA-  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


9 


and  it  is  supposed  that  such  vinegar  is  what  we  usually  get  in  stores. 
So  highly  esteemed  is  the  cider  vinegar  that  it  commands  a distinctly 
higher  price,  and  vinegars  from  other  sources  are  made  to  imitate  it 
as  nearly  as  possible. 

But  on  inquiry  in  this  state  it  developed,  to  our  great  surprise, 
that  to  the  ordinary  consumer  vinegar  was  vinegar,  no  matter  what 
its  source,  and  that  there  was  very  rareh^  a call  for  a cider  vinegar 
as  such.  As  a matter  of  fact,  there  is  little  pure  cider  vinegar  on  sale 
in  this  state,  but  much  imitation  cider  vinegar  is  sold  in  its  stead. 
So  far  as  the  strength  of  the  vinegars  is  concerned,  there  is  little 
to  complain  of,  the  standard  of  from  4 to  5 per  cent,  acid  required  in 
other  states  being. usually  found. 

The  practice  of  one  firm  of  manufacturers  is  most  reprehensible, 
and  calls  for  severe  condemnation.  Sample  jugs  of  apple  cider  of 
excellent  quality  are  sent  out  by  Wallace  and  Gregory  Bros.,  of 
Paducah  Kentucky,  and  a totally  dififerent  vinegar  is  sent  in  the 
large  packages,  even  though  the  same  quality  was  promised  the 
retailer.  This  was  the  experience  of  at  least  one  of  our  retail  grocers, 
the  Gary  Bros.,  of  Bozeman. 

The  Use  of  Preservatives. 

The  question  of  the  continued  use  of  the  small  quantities  of  anti- 
septics which  are  present  in  so  many  foods  is  an  important  one. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  these  antiseptics  prevent,  to  a greater  or  less 
degree,  the  digestion  of  foods,  and  anything  that  hinders  digestion 
is  hardly  desirable  in  food.  It  is  entirely  likely  that  a strong 
person  may  use  repeatedly  food  containing  such  adulterants,  but  if 
So  it  is  because  his  powers  of  digestion  are  sufficiently  great  to  over- 
come their  inhibitory  effect.  With  persons  of  weak  digestive  power, 
foods  so  preserved  can  hardly  prove  other  than  harmful.  On  the- 
whole,  it  seems  only  fair  that  we  should  know  exactly  what  we  are 
eating,  and  that  we  should  be  in  a position  to  avoid  that  which  is 
harmful.  In  this  connection  the  testimony  given  before 
the  Senate  Committee  on  Manufactures  is  pertinent  to  the  discus- 
sion. This  will  be  found  in  the  report  previously  referred  to. 

Occurrence  of  Salicylic  Acid  in  Fruits. 

For  the  past  twelve  months  or  more  tests  for  Salicylic  acid  in 
fresh  fruits  have  been  carried  on  in  the  laboratory  of  the  Montana 
Experiment  Station  with  the  result  of  showing  its  almost  constant 
presence  in  extremely  small  quantity. 

So  far  as  we  know  the  only  similar  work  has  been  done  by  Portes 
and  Desmouliere  (Journal  de  Pharmacie  et  de  Chimie,  t.  XIV,  p. 
342)  who  report  its  presence  to  the  extent  of  a milligram  to  the  kilo- 
gram of  strawberries. 

Desmouliere  in  his  Doctorate  Thesis  in  tlie  Gniversite  de  Paris 
also  reports  its  presence  in  raspberries,  mulberries  and  licjuorice 
root.  (Journal  de  Parmacie  et  de  Chimie,  t.  16,  p.  86).  This  so 


lO 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


far  as  we  know  covers  all  the  work  done  outside  this  laboratory  on 
fresh  fruit. 

It  is  probable  that  the  acid  is  present  as  the  methyl  salt,  which 
is  well  known  in  the  oil  of  wintergreen,  though  we  have  not  yet 
taken  steps  to  prove  this. 

Among  the  fruits  from  which  we  have  obtained  the  salicylic  acid 
reaction  are  the  following:  strawberries,  raspberries  both  red  and 
black,  blackberries,  currants,  plums,  black  cherries,  apricots,  peaches 
Concord  grapes,  crab  apples,  standard  apples,  quinces  and  oranges. 

In  a few  instances  we  have  made  this  work  quantitative  with  the 
following  results : 

Currants  0.57  mgms.  acid  per  kilo  of  fruit. 

Cherries  0.46  mgms.  acid  per  kilo  of  fruit. 

Plums  0.28  mgms.  acid  per  kilo  of  fruit. 

Crab  apples  0.24  mgms.  acid  per  kilo  of  fruit. 

Grapes  0.32  mgms.  acid  per  kilo  of  fruit. 

These  values,  however,  are  not  absolute  but  only  comparative 
and  represent  the  amount  we  have  succeeded  in  extracting  in  each 
case.  We  distilled  the  fruit  with  phosphoric  acid,  extracted  the 
distillate  with  ether,  took  up  with  a small  amount  of  water  and 
applied  the  ferric  chloride  test  after  the  ether  had  evaporated. 
Check  analyses  were  made  with  known  amounts  of  salicylic  acid  and 
showed  that  not  nearly  all  the  acid  was  extracted  by  this  method.  . 

We  have  also  found  the  salicylic  acid  reaction  to  be  given  by 
tomatoes,  cauliflower  and  string  beans. 

It  seems  to  us  that  the  bearing  of  this  wofk  is  very  important, 
particularly  as  regards  the  investigations  of  food  chemists.  While 
these  very  small  quantities  may  not  react  to  the  tests  for  salicylic 
acid  as  usually  applied,  especially  in  view  of  the  small  amount  of 
material  generally  worked  upon,  25  grams,  yet  a knowledge  of  its 
wide  spread  distribution  may  save  reporting  on  occa’sion  materials 
as  adulterated  to  which  salicylic  acid  has  not  been  added.  Know- 
ing that  salicylic  acid  may  occur  in  many  of  the  substances  either 
a quantitative  determination  will  be  necessary  in  each  case  or  it  will 
be  well  to  report  only  on  strong  reactions. 

W e were  led  to  this  investigation  by  the  protest  of  a well-known 
reputable  Arm  in  whose  currant  jelly  we  reported  salicylic  acid  but 
which  was  present  in  apparently  no  greater  quantity  than  we  have 
since  found  it  in  the  fresh  currants.  A similar  experience  was  had 
lately  in  one  of  the  state  laboratories  for  food  control. 

In  addition  to  the  above  work  we  are  also  studying  the  distribu- 
tion of  benzoic  acid  in  fruit  and  vegetables  and  hope  to  be  able  to 
publish  our  results  within  the  year. 

.My  thanks  are  especially  due  to  Mr.  Edmund  Burke,  assistant 
chemist,  upon  whom  most  of  the  analytical  work  fell,  and  also  to 
Mr.  Irvin  Cockrill,  who,  while  a post-graduate  student,  carried  on 
the  work  upon  the  vinegars  and  baking  powders. 


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LO  UC 


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14 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


ANALYSIS  OF  TOMATO  CATSUPS. 


p 

:2: 

o 


Name  of  Brand. 


Name  of  Manufacturer. 


12571  Snider’s  Home-made  Catsup. 


Caltsup,  Standard 


1269  Priscilla  

1363  Blue  Label  . 

1365  Tart  Tomato 

Brand  

1366  Favorite  Brand  Tomato  Catsup.  . 

1367  Shrewsbury  Puree  of  Tomatoes.  . 
1368|Eagle  Brand  Tomato  Ketchup.. 

15591  Sunny  Side  Ketchup  

1507!  Extra  Tomato  Catsup  Monarch 

I Brand  

1558! Standard  Tomato  Catsup  

1508  Bayle’s  Tomato  Catsup 

1494  Sweet  Spiced  

1746  Old  Virginia  Ketchup 

1977!Nail  City  Catsup  

1979, Heinz  Tomato  Ketchup 


T.  A.  Snider  Preserve  Co 

Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co  .... 

Curtice  Brothers  Co 

P.  J.  Ritter  Conserve  Co 

P.  J.  Ritter  Conserve  Co 

E.  C.  Hazard  & Co 

Kuner  Pickle  Co 

The. Tip  Top  Ketchup  Co 

Reid,  Murdoch  & Co 

Standard  Packing  Co 

Geo.  A.  Bayle 

Gordon  & Dilworth  

Geo.  K.  McMechen  & Son  Co. 
The  West  Vir.  Preserving  Co 
H.  J.  Heinz  Co 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


15 


ANALYSIS  OF  TOMATO  CATSUPS. 


Where  Manufactured. 


Cincinnati,  O 

Chicago,  111 

Rochester,  N Y 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Shrewsbury,  N.  J 

Denver,  Col 

Chicago,  111 

Cincinnati,  O 

St  Louis,  Mo 

St  Louis,  Mo 

New  York,  N.Y 

Wheeling  , W.  Va 


Pittsburg,  Pa 


Preservative. 

Coloring  Matter 

Benzoic  acid  

Coal  Tar  Dye  . . - 

Salicylic  acid 

Coal  Tar  Dye  . . . 

Salicylic  acid... 

Coal  Tar  Dye  . . . 

Benzoic  acid  

Salicylic  acid 

Coal  Tar  Dye... 

Salicylic  Acid 

Coal  Tar  Dye  .. 

Salicylic  acid 

Coal  Tar  Dye  . . 

Benzoic  acid  

Coal  Tar  Dye  .. 

Acid  Sulphite  

Coal  Tar  Dye 

Salicylic  acid 

Coal  Tar  Dye  .. 

Acid  Sulphite  

Benzoic  acid  

Coal  Tar  Dye  .. 

Sulphite  : 

Coal  Tar  Dye  .. 

Sal’c  acid  and  Sulphite 

Coal  Tar  Dye  .. 

Benzoic  acid  

i6 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


.JAMS,  JELLIES,  AND  PRESERVES,  ALL  ADULTERATED. 


Name  of  Brand. 


1482jQueen 

1483Queen 


1486 

1487 

1488 

1489 

1490 

1491 

1495 

1496 

1497 


Queen 

Queen 

Queen 

Queen 

Queen 

Queen 

Queen 

Queen 

Queen 


1265|Eagle  Jam,  Grape  Compound.... 
1266lEagle  Jam,  Pineapple  Compound. 
1268|Eagle  Jam,  Raspberry  Compound 
1481  [Queen  Black  Raspberry  Jam.  . . . 

Blackberry  Jam 

Strawberry  Jam 

Red  Raspberry  Jam 

Apricot  Jam 

Green  Gage  Jam 

Currant  Jam 

Cherry  Jam 

Peach  Jam  

Pineapple  Jam  

Gooseberry  Jam 

Pear  Jam . 

1522!Extra  Grated  Pineapple 

■1552|Pure  Fruit  Jam,  Blackberry 

1553|Genesee  Fresh  Fruit  Jam,  Currant 
1585'Gopher  Brand  Preserved  Straw- 

I berries 

161 5T.  & B.  Brand,  Extra  Quality, 

Raspberry  Preserves  

1616ID.  & B.  Brand  Strawberry  Pre- 

i serves  

1617  *Red  Currant  Jelly  

1618 [Extra  Quality  Blackberry  Jelly.  . 
1619'Extra  Quality  Currant  Jelly 

1620  [Favorite  Brand  Compound  Cur- 

i rant  Jelly 

1621  [Favorite  Brand  Compound  Straw- 

' berry  Jelly  Flavor  

2274  Peacock  Brand  Peach  Jam 

2275  Peacock  Brand  Blackberry  Jam. 

I 

2276  Peacock  Brand  Cherry  Jam 

2277iPeacock  Brand  Pineapple  Jam.. 
2278:Peacock  Brand  Quince  Jam.... 
2279 j Peacock  Brand  Black  Raspberry 

Jam  

22801  Peacock  Brand  Red  Raspberry 

J am  

2281!Peacoclc  Brand  Apricot  Brand.. 

I 


Name  of  Manufacturer. 


Anderson  Preserving  Co. . . 
Anderson  Preserving  Co... 
Anderson  Preserving  Co . . . 
Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co. 
Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co.. 
Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co.. 
Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co.. 
Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co.. 
Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co.. 
Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co.. 
Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co.. 
Franklin  MacVeagh  <6:  Co. 
Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co.. 
Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co. 
Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co.. 

Reid,  Murdoch  & Go 

Reid,  Murdoch  & Co 

Batavia  Preserving  Co 


Foley  Bros.  & Kelly  Mer.  Co. 
Dodson-Brown  Mfg.  Co 


Dodson-Brown  Mfg.  Co 

Gordon  & Dil worth 

Philip  J.  Ritter  Conserve  Co. 
Philip  J.  Ritter  Conserve  Co. 

Philip  J.  Ritter  Conserve  Co. 

Philip  J.  Ritter  Conserve  Co. 
Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co.... 
franklin  MacVeagh  & Co.... 


Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co. 
Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co, 
Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co, 

Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co, 


Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co. 
Franklin  MacVeagh  & Co. 


^Contains  only  a small  quantity  of  Salicylic  acid  which  subsequent  inves- 
tigations have  shown  was  probably  normally  luesent  in  the  fresh  fruit 
used  and  which  could  not  be  considered  an  adulterant. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


17 


JAMS,  JELLIES,  AND  PRESERVES,  ALL  ADULTERATED. 


Where 

Manufactured. 


Camden,  N.  J 

Camden,  N.  J 

Camden,  N.  J 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 ..... . 

Genesee  Co.  N.  li 

St.  Paul,  Minn . . 

St.  Louis,  Mo... 

St.  Louis,  Mo... 

New  York 

Philadelphia 

Philadelphia 

Philadelphia 

Philadelphia 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 

Chicago,  111 


Chicago,  111 
Chicago,  111 


Preservative. 

1 

Coloring  Matter. 

Other  Adulterants 

Salicylic  acid 
Salicylic  acid. 
Salicylic  acid. 
Salicylic  acid . . 

Coal  Tar  Dye.... 

Coal  Tar  Dye. . . 

Starch  Paste  and  Glucose 
Starch  Paste  and  Glucose. 
Starch  Paste  and  Glucose, 

Olnr’osft  

Salicylic  acid. 
Salicylic  acid. 
Salicylic  acid. 

Coal  Tar  Dye. . . 

Coal  Tar  Dye 

Coal  Tar  Dye... 

Glucose  

Starch  Paste  and  Glucose, 
Starch  Paste  and  Glucose. 

C3-1  n nncicw 

Salicylic  acid. 
Salicylic  acid . 
Salicylic  acid 
Salicylic  acid. 
Salicylic  acid. 
Salicylic  acid. 
Salicylic  acid. 
Salicylic  acid 
Salicylic  acid 
Salicylic  acid 

Salicylic  acid 

Salicylic  acid 

Salicylic  acid., 

Glucose  

Starch  Paste  and  Glucose. 

Glucose  

Glucose  

Glucose  

Glucose  

Glucose  

Coal  Tar  Dye. . . 

Starch  Paste  and  Glucose. 

Salicylic  acid. 
Salicylic  acid. 
Salicylic  acid.. 

Salicylic  acid. . 

Salicylic  acid. 
Sulphite 

\ 

Pa.stft 

Salicylic  acid 
and  Sulphite. . 

Staroh  Pa.ste 

Sulphite 

Sulphite 

Coal  Tar  Dye. . . 

Starch  Paste 

Starch  Paste 

Sulphite 

Starch  Paste 

Sulphite  and . . 
Salicylic  acid.. 

Sulphite.,. . . . 
Sulphite 

Coal  Tar  Dye. . . 

Coal  Tar  Dye... 

Starch  Paste 

Starch'  Paste 

Starch  Paste 

ANALYSIS  OF  CEREAL  BREAKFAST  FOODS. 


18 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


'-'f 


Per  Cent 
Ash 


Crude 
Protein 
Per  Cent 


Per  Cent 
Nitrogen 


Per  Cent 
Water 


Lab’v  No, 


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C^C5000COOCDH<ailOaiH<01COcr>LOiHOO'HiCOTHlOOOCO  OOOtHOSCOO 
iHiHiHLlOCOaiUiasCOtHiHOiiHCOUOasOOTHH^LOOOCUCOTH^DOOCOCDOUO 
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MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


19 


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Price 
per  pound 


Value 
Terms 
cts  per  lb, 


* Volume 
Carbonic 
Acid  Gas 


Available 
Carbonic 
Acid  Gas 


Filler 


Lab’y  No, 


LO  10  t>  00 


LO  O CO  LO  CO 

c£5  QO  cr>  10  T— I 

CO  <m’  (m’  05  1-4 


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of  70  degrees  Fahrenheit, 


MONTANA  experiment  STATION. 


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BAKED  BEANS  POUND  ADULTERATED. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION.  21 


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jmontaxa  experiment  station. 


ANALYSIS  O F VINEGARS. 


Lab’y  No. 

M an  ufact  u rer . 

Place  of 
Manufacture, 

1 Selling 

Price 
Per  Gal. 

Sulphates 

Chlorides 

Coloring 

Matter 

1623 

F.  C.  Johnson 

Kishwaukee,  111.. 

$ .50 

1 

None.  INone.  1 

I 

None.. . . 

1624 

F.  C.  Johnson 

Kishwaukee,  111.  . 

.50jTrace  jNone.  j 

None 

1625 

F.  C.  Johnson 

Kishwaukee,  111.. 

.50  None.  iTrace  i 

None 

1626 

F.  C.  Johnson 

Kishwaukee,  111. . 

.50|Trace  j: 

None.  1 

None. . . . 

1627 

H.  J.  Heinz  & Co 

Pittsburg,  Pa. ...| 

.OOjTrace  ITrace  I 

None.. . . 

1628 

Smith  Refining  Works.  . 

Council  Bluffs,  Ia[ 

.40 [None.  INone.  1 

Caramel. 

1629 

Smith  Refining  Works.  .| 

Council  Bluffsi,  -laj 

.35  None,  i: 

None. 

Caramel. 

1630 

A.  Steinhorst | 

Kansas  City,  Kasj 

* 1 

Trace  |: 

None. j 

Caramel. 

1631 

Could  not  obtain 

Did  not  know  . . . 

.40: 

None.  1 

None. 

[Caramel. 

1632 

Sour  Cider 

Helena.  .Mont.  .. 

.40 

INone. 

None. 

[None.. . . 

1633  Cross  & Blackwell 

Vienna  and  Phila 

1.80!Trace  INone.  1 

Caramel. 

1634 

Wallace  & Gregory  Bros. 

Paducah, Ky 

.60 

|None.  j 

None. 

[Caramel. 

1635 

Wallace  & Gregory  Bros. 

Paducah, Ky 

.40 

INone.  i 

None. 

i Caramel. 

1636 

Wallace  & Gregory  Bros. 

Paducah, Ky 

.40 

None,  i 

None. 

Caramel. 

1637 

Wallace  & Gregory  Bros. 

Paducah, Ky 

.80 

'None,  i 

None. 

Caramel. 

1638 

Wallace  & Gregory  Bros. 

Paducah, Ky 

.50|Trace 

None. 

Caramel. 

1639 

Wallace  & Gregory  Bros. 

Paducah, Ky 

.40 

INone.  I 

None. 

Caramel. 

1640 

Wallace  & Gregory  Bros. 

Paduach,Ky 

.35 

None,  j 

None. 

Caramel. 

1641 

Wallace  & Gregory  Bros. 

Paducah  Ky 

Trace  INone . 

'Caramel. 

1642 

Wallace  & Gregory  Bros. 

Paducah, Ky 

.50 

Trace  :Trace 

Caramel. 

1643 

Wallace  & Gregory  Bros, 

Paducah, Ky 

i .60 

Trace  j 

None. 

Caramel. 

1644 

Wallace  & Gregory  Bros. 

Paducah, Ky 

.40 

None.  1 

None. 

Caramel. 

1645 

Wallace  & Gregory  Bros. 

Paducah, Ky 

.35 

None,  i 

None. 

Caramel. 

1646 

Wallace  & Gregory  Bros. 

Paducah, Ky 

None.  INone. 

None 

1647  Wallace  & Gregory  Bros.  I 

Paducah, Ky 

None . j 

None. 

None. . . . 

1648  F.  C.  Johnson 

1 Kishwaukee,  111.. 

None. 

None. . . . 

1649iWallace&  Gregory  Bros. 

1 

None. j 

1 (Sample  Jugs) | 

Paducah, Ky 

Trace 

1 

None. 

None.. . . 

♦Refused. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


23 


ANALYSIS  OF  VINEGARS. 


I’er  cent 

Solids 

Per  Cent 

Ash 

Ash  Aik. 

or  Nent. 

Flame. 

Sold  as — 

Per  cent 
Acetic 
Acid. 

Remarks. 

1.9 

2.92 

i i 

1 .258lAlk. 

1 .46  !Alk. 

Pot 

Pot 

Cider  Vin 

Ap.  Cider  Vin. 

5.55 

5.15 

Is  an  apple  cider  vinegar 

1 Is  an  apple  cider  vinegar 

2.23 
2.90  I 
.16  1 
.3511 
.88  I 

.26  j 

..23 
2.78  i 
3.0.5  I 
.39  I 
.169! 
.38 
.33 
.27 
.239 
.176 
l.OO 
.68 
.306 
.25 
.19 

.21  i 

.14  1 
1.47  ! 

I 


.26  lAlk, 
.44  jAlk. 
.039:  Aik. 
.021jAlk. 
.052!Alk. 
.0651  Aik. 
.055!  Aik. 
.46  lAlk. 


I Pot. 

(Pot 

I Pot.  & Sod. 
i Pot.  & Sod, 
|Pot.&Sod. 
[Pot.  & Sod. 
IPot.&Sod. 
iPot 


.28  jAlk.  iPbt.&  Sod 
.035iAlk.  [Pot.  & Sod 
.038|Alk.|Pot.&Sod, 
.063!Alk.  Pot.  & Sod. 
.0681  Aik.  Pot.ifeSod. 
.0751  Aik.  Pot.  & Sod. 
.018 1 Aik.  Pot.  Sod. 
.014lAlk.|Pot.&Sod. 
.23  lAlk.jPot.&Sod. 
.29  lAlk.lPot.&Sod. 
.054!Alk.iPoL&Sod. 
.029iAlk.iPot.&Sod. 
.021iAlk.!Pot.&Sod. 
.017!Alk.  jPoit.  & Sod. 
.0271Alk.!Pot.&Sod, 

.50  [Aik.  1 Pot 

! 1 


Cider  Vin 

jCider  Vin 

|Pickling Vin . . 

I C|Ommon  Vin 
I Weakened  Vin 

1 Cider  Vin 

I Cider  Vin 

|Not  Sold 

I Malt 

(Cider  Vin 

(Cider  Vin 

Cider  Vin 

Cider  Vin 

Cider  Vin 

Cider  Vin 

Cider  Vin 

Cider  Vin 

Cider  Vin 

Ap.  Cider  Vini 
(Ap.  Cider  Vini 
,( Ap.  Cider  Vini 
.(White  WineV. 
.(White  WineV. 
(Ap.  Cider  Vinij 

I 


3. 20 [Is  diluted  apple  cider  vinegar 
5.551  Is  nn  apple  cider  vinegar. 

5.451  Is  a malt  vinegar 

8.001  Probably  an  acid  vinegar. 

4.75 1 Probably  an  acid  vinegar. 
6.501Proba,bly  a malt  vinegar.. 
3.67iProbably  a malt  vinegar.. 
1.40|An  apple  cider  vinegar.  . 

4.951  Sold  bot.  pure  malt  vin 

7.88 (Without  doubt  a malt  vinegar 
2. 35|  Without  doubt  a malt  vinegai 
4.90! Without  doubt  a malt  vinegai 
O.OOjWithout  doubt  a malt  vinegai 
5.20|without  doubt  a malt  vinegar 
7.25jWithout  doubt  a malt  vinegar 
4.47iWithout  doubt  a malt  vinegar 
4.70!Without  doubt  a malt  vinegar 
3.82(Without  doubt  a malt  vinegai 
4.47iWithout  doubt  a malt  vinegar 
4.651Without  doubt  a malt  vinegar 
5.20!Without  doubt  a malt  vinegar 
8.90(Probably  made  from  glucose. 
4. 12( Probably  made  froni  glucose. 
5.62|An  apple  cider  vinegar 


2.30  .32  (Aik.  (Pot |Ap.  Cider  Vinij  4.62  An  apple  cider  vinegar. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FOODS  FOUND  ADULTERATED. 


24 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


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BULLETIN  No.  39. 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

Experiment  Station, 


-OF  THE- 


A^rictilitiral  College  of  Montana. 


SHeep  Feeding'  in  Montana. 


Bozeman,  Montana,  November,  1902. 


REPUBLICAN, 
Bozeman,  Montana, 
1902. 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 


EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


BOZenAN,  ■ MONTANA. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor,  ') 

James  Donovan,  Attorney-General.  t Ex-Officio Helena. 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  ) 

J.  M.  Evans, Missoula. 

C.  D.  Leonard, Butte. 

N.  W.  McConnell, Helena. 

W.  M.  Johnston Billings. 

O.  P.  Chisholm Bozeman. 

J.  G.  McKay, Hamilton. 

G.  T.  Paul, Dillon. 

N.  B.  Holter, Helena. 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President,.. Bozeman 

J.  M.  Robinson,  Vice-President, Bozeman* 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary Bozeman' 

Joseph  Kountz, Bozeman 

E.  B.  Lamme, Bozeman. 


STATION  STAFF. 


Samueu  Fortier,  Ma.  E., 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S. 

Robt.  S.  Shaw, , 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D., 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc., 


Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer 

Chemist* 

Agriculturist- 

Botanist 

Entomologist- 


Postoffice,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be  addressed  to  the 
Director. 

MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 


Notice.— The  Bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to  any  citizen  of 
Montana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the  Station  for  that  purpose. 


Montana  Experiment  Station 


BULLETIN  NO,  39-  = = NOVEHEER,  1902. 


SHeep  Feeding  in  Montana. 

By  R,  S.  SHAW, 


The  agricultural  conditions  in  Montana  have  now  reached  that 
stage  of  development  whereby  the  state  can  rival  the  greatest  feeding 
states  of. the  Union,  for  within  our  own  borders  are  to  be  found  the 
sheep,  hay,  grain,  water,  climatic  conditions,  and  men  of  enter- 
prise to  develop  the  industry.  Montana  now  leads  the  states  of  the 
Union  in  numbers  of  sheep,  the  census  of  1900  reporting  6,170,483 
within  her  borders.  Valleys,  which  ten  years  ago  produced  little  or  no 
hay,  except  some  timothy  or  wild  hay,  are  to-day  furnishing  thousands 
upon  thousands  of  tons  of  legumes,  especially  suited  to  the- fattening 
of  sheep.  The  climatic  conditions  are  such  as  to  render  the  fattening 
process  rapid  and  economical.  Sufficient  grain  can  be  produced  to 
give  the  meat  products  a good  finish.  The  feasibility  of  shipi^ing 
these  finished  products  to  the  great  markets  has  been  successfully 
demonstrated 


4 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Suitability  of  Range  Types  of  Sheep  for  Fattening. 

The  range  sheep  was  bred  primarily  for  wool  production,  though 
during  later  years  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  improve  their  mutton 
qualities  These  attempts  at  improvement  along  the  latter  line  will 
no  doubt  result  in  the  establishment  of  a dual  purpose  sheep,  probably 
through  the  use  of  Rambouillet  or  Delaine  rams  on  the  native  stocks. 
Experience  has  already  taught  many  of  our  sheepmen  that  the  heavy 
mutton  breeds,  such  as  the  Downs,  will  not  answer  on  the  range. 
Because,  therefore,  of  the  peculiar  range  conditions  our  feeders  will 
have  to  be  content  with  a dual  type  of  sheep  rather  than  a special 
mutton  type  for  feeding.  Tests  have  shown  that  there  is  little  differ- 
ence in  the  returns  secured  from  the  two  types.  Recent  experiments 
at  this  Station  showed  that  where  the  mutton  type  lambs  produced  100 
pounds  increase  in  live  weight  at  a cost  of  $4.89,  requiring  8.74  pounds 
of  food  to  produce  a pound  of  gain,  those  of  the  dual  purpose  or  range 
type  produced  100  pounds  increase  at  a cost  of  $4.62,  requiring  9.07 
pounds  of  food  per  pound  gain.  These  figures  show  the  range  sheep 
to  be  not  far  behind ’the  special  type  in  mutton  production,  while  they 
excel  them  in  wool  production  under  range  conditions. 

Profits  from  Sheep  Feeding. 


In  Station  tests  of  1900,  11.8  pounds  of  clover  were  required  to 
maintain  a sheep  and  produce  one  pound  of  gain.  At  this  rate  one 
ton  of  clover  produced  169.5  pounds  of  mutton  worth  $4.68  per  cwt. 
This  gave  a return  of  $7.98  per  ton  of  the  clover  fed,  while  the  local 
price  was  only  $5.00  per  ton  in  the  stack.  In  1900  the  net  profits  per 
head  from  the  Station  fed  lambs  was  81  cents,  when  clover  was  valued  at 
$6.00  per  ton,  oats  at  90  cents  per  cwt.  and  damaged  wheat  at  40  cents  per 
cwt.  In  1901  a carload  of  Station  lambs  fed  in  five  divisions  on  differ- 
ent rations,  hence  lacking  in  uniformity,  netted  a profit  of  80  cents  per 
head  in  Chicago  when  placed  on  the  extremely  poor  market  of  March, 
1901.  In  this  case  clover  was  valued  at  $5.00  per  ton,  grain  85  cents  per 
cwt.,  and  screenings  at  55  cents  per  cwt.  In  1902  Station  fattened 
sheep  gave  the  following  profits  on  the  Chicago  market : 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


o 


55  lambs,  net  profit  of  $95.15,  or  $1.73  per  head. 

51  one-year  wethers,  net  profit  of  $71.70,  or  $1.40  per  head. 

52  two-year  wethers,  net  profit  of  $88.44,  or  $1.57  per  head. 

53  aged  ewes,  net  profit  of  $1.00,  or  1.8  cts.  per  head. 

Clover  was  valued  at  $5.00  per  ton  and  grain  at  90  cents  per  cwt. 

Cost  of  Producing  Mutton  in  Montana, 

Where  legumes  are  used  phenomenal  results  have  been  secured  as 
regards  amount  of  food  required  to  produce  a pound  of  mutton  and 
the  cost  of  the  same.  In  Station  tests  of  1900,  6.38  pounds  of  clover 
and  2.8  pounds  of  wheat  produced  a pound  of  mutton  at  3.22  cents, 
with  clover  worth  $6.00  per  ton  and  damaged  wheat  40  cents  per  cwt. 
At  the  same  time  11.8  pounds  of  clover  produced  a ijound  gain,  costing 
3.54  cents,  and  6.10  pounds  of  clover  and  2.65  pounds  of  oats  produced 
a pound  of  gain,  costing  4.39  cents,  oats  being  worth  90  cents  per  cwt. 
Station  tests  of  1901  gave  the  following  results: 

Cost  per  100  pounds  increase  from  clover,  barley  and  oats,  $4.34. 

Cost  per  100  pounds  increase  from  clover  and  screenings,  $3.34. 

Cost  per  100  pounds  increase  from  clover  alone,  $3.53. 

In  Station  tests,  1902,  one  pound  increase  was  produced  at  the 
following  cost  with  sheej)  of  different  ages,  viz.:  Lambs  4.18  cents, 
one-year  wethers  5.83  cents,  two-year  wethers  5.90  cents,  and  aged  ewes 
6.78  cents;  clover  was  worth  $5.00  per  ton  and  grain  90  cents  per  cwt. 

As  the  prices  charged  for  foods  are  far  above  the  cost  price,  a sec- 
ondary profit  is  secured  from  all  the  foods  fed.  These  prices  are  far 
in  excess  of  those  charged  for  feed  in  eastern  trials,  where  cheap 
grains  are  secured. 


Shipping  vs.  Local  Markets. 

The  individual  feeder  should  never  rely  on  local  markets.  Their 
consuming  capacity  is  so  small  that  much  difficulty  is  experienced  in 
disposing  of  even  less  than  a carload  lot.  In  March,  1900,  when  lambs 
were  worth  $6.50  to  $7.00  per  cwt.  in  Chicago,  a portion  of  a carload  of 
►Station  lambs  had  to  be  disposed  of  at  $4.68  xJt3r  cwt.  on  a local 


6 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


market.  The  profits  of  1901  and  1902  given  above  were  secured,  the 
former  on  the  poorest  and  the  latter  on  the  best  market  for  some  years. 
The  feeder  should  always  select  sheep  in  even  carload  lots  with  a view 
of  shipping. 


Cost  of  Shipping. 


Fat  sheep  and  cattle  have  both  been  shipped  from  the  Grallatin 
Valley  to  eastern  and  western  markets,  the  cost  being  about  the  same 
in  both  cases. 

In  1901  the  cost  of  marketing  lambs  shipped  from  Bozeman  to 
Chicago,  a distance  of  about  1,400  miles,  including  all  expenses,  was 
83  cents  per  head. 


In  1902  the  following  expenses  were  incurred  in  marketing  sheep 
of  different  ages,  viz:  lambs  78  cents,  one-year  wethers  $1.07,  two- 
year  wethers  $1.27  and  aged  ewes  94  cents,,  the  whole  lot  averaging 
$1.01  per  head.  In  this  latter  case  the  cost  is  a little  high  owing  to  a 
prolonged  stop-over. 


Shrinkage  in  Marketing. 


In  1901  the  shrinkage  of  Station  lambs  between  Bozeman  and 
Chicago  was  eight  pounds  each.  Over  the  same  route  in  1902  lambs 
shrunk  7.6  j3ounds,  or  8.7  per  cent.  One-year  wethers  shrunk  10.4 
pounds,  or  8.7  per  cent^  two-year  wethers  shrunk  12  X30unds,  or  8.5  per 
cent,  and  aged  ewes  shrunk  12.2  pounds,  or  11.3  per  cent.  In  both 
cases  the  sheep  were  fed  in  the  morning  with  access  to  water  and 
weighed  between  2 and  3 o’clock  p.  m.  before  shipping  in  the  evening. 


Method  of  Feeding  and  Equipment. 

The  beginner  should  start  with  not  more  than  one  or  two  carloads 
until  every  feature  of  the  business  becomes  familiar.  Except  in  care- 
ful hands  the  large  enterprise  undertaken  suddenly,  without  proper 
equipment,  is  likely  to  result  in  failure. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


7 


Equipment. 

Small  yards  or  enclosures  are  very  essential.  Sheep  will  not  fatten 
well  when  allowed  too  much  liberty  to  roam  at  will.  The  size  of  feed- 
ing yards  will  have  to  be  determined  by  the  extent  of  the  feeding.  In 
general  the  fewer  sheep  that  are  run  together  the  better  the  results. 
The  average  farmer,  who  probably  will  not  attempt  to  feed  to  exceed 
2,000  per  year,  should  figure  on  dividing  these  up  in  three  or  four 
lots,  grading  them  according  to  size,  condition  and  strength.  The 
rations  can  then  be  so  adjusted  as  to  turn  out  the  whole  band  in  uni- 
form condition  of  fatness.  It  is  very  essential  to  select  high,  dry  feed 
yards,  through  which  running  water  passes  near  one  end  if  possible. 
Some  kind  of  wire  netting  makes  good  fencing,  with  a few  strands  of 
barbed  wire  encircling  the  top  of  the  outer  enclosure  to  prevent  the 
access  of  dogs  or  wild  animals.  Some  form  of  shelter  should  be  pro- 
vided, though  the  same  may  not  be  used  more  than  a few  days  through- 
out the  entire  season.  On  the  Station  farm  a shed  16x64  feet  was 
found  to  be  sufficient  to  provide  shelter  for  220  sheep,  giving  each 
about  five  square  feet  of  ground  space.  The  shed  is  eight  feet  high 
on  one  side  and  six  on  the  other;  it  is  enclosed  with  rough  lumber 
and  covered  with  an  under  layer  of  brush  and  an  upper  one  of  straw. 
Such  a structure  provides  suitable  protection  except  in  time  of  rain 
in  the  late  spring. 

A suitable  form  of  hay  rack  is  very  essential.  Those  used  at 
the  Station  in  the  past  few  years  have  given  excellent  results.  They 
are  16  feet  long,  8^  feet  high  and  8 feet  wide.  The  bottom  board  is 
12  inches  and  the  feeding  space  above  is  8 inches  in  width.  Above 
the  feeding  space  three  1x6  inch  boards  are  used.  A rack  of  this 
style  will  furnish  feeding  space  for  thirty  lambs. 

Feeding. 

Hay  should  not  be  suioplied  more  than  twice  each  day,  and  once 
may  be  preferable,  furnishing  only  that  amount  which  will  be  well 
cleaned  up.  In  case  of  very  coarse  fodder  the  rough  leavings  should 
be  removed;  if  forced  to  consume  them  the  gains  of  the  sheep  will  be 
reduced.  Feeding  on  the  ground  is  wasteful  and  unsatisfactory. 


8 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Grain.  Only  a light  grain  ration  is  necessary  to  produce  a good 
finish  with  the  legumes  available;  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of 
a pound  of  grain  per  head  per  day,  along  with  alfalfa  or  clover,  will 
be  sufficient  to  give  the  desired  finish,  if  fed  throughout  a period 
extending  from  seventy  to  ninety  days  The  grain  ration  should  be 
extended  throughout  the  whole  feeding  period  rather  than  the  latter 
half,  as  has  been  practiced  in  some  localities.  The  grain  may  be  sup- 
plied in  troughs  fastened  to  the  posts  enclosing  each  feed  lot.  V- 
shaped  troughs  are  desirable  to  prevent  sheep  from  jumping  up  and 
standing  in  them.  Unground  grain  will  answer  well  for  sheex)  with 
sound  teeth. 

Salt.  Should  be  in  constant  supply  so  that  the  sheep  can  secure 
it  at  will. 

Gleaning  Grain  Fields. 

The  cheapest  and  most  rapid  gains  are  secured  from  sheep  while 
running  on  grain  and  clover  stubble  after  harvest  and  before  the  feed- 
ing season  begins.  In  1901  225  lambs  which  pastured  on  112  acres  of 
the  Station  farm  for  thirty  days  before  going  on  feed,  made  an  average 
increase  in  live  weight  of  9.78  pounds.  The  most  profitable  way  to 
fatten  aged  ewes  is  by  running  them  on  clover  and  grain  stubble  dur- 
ing the  entire  autumn  season. 

Comparative  Feeding  Value  of  Alfalfa,  Red  and  Alsike  Clover. 

Montana  Station  Bulletin  No.  21. 


The  sheei)  feeding  industry  of  Montana  is  based  on  the  produc- 
tion of  legumes.  Almost  without  excexition  every  valley  in  the  state, 
possessed  of  water  supplies  for  irrigation,  can  be  made  to  grow  one  or 
mor(‘  of  the  legumes  mentioned,  depending  upon  the  peculiarity  of  the 
soil,  and  soil  moisture  conditions.  Some  portions  of  the  state,  as  the 
Yellowstone  valley,  are  i^re-eniinentiy  suited  to  the  growth  of  alfalfa; 
while  in  others,  such  as  the  Gallatin,  cotulitions  well  suited  to  all 
three  legnmes  are  found  in  various  sections.  Because  of  the  fact  that 
these  thre(‘  crops  are  coming  into  common  use  a test  was  made  to  de- 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


9 


termine  their  relative  values,  with  the  following  result,  as  reported  in 
Bulletin  No.  21. 

Composition  of  the  legumes  used,  furnished  from  analyses  by  Dr' 
F.  W.  Traphagen,  Station  Chemist. 

Alsike  Red  Clover  Alfalfa 

PER  CENT.  PER  CENT.  PER  CENT 


Water 6.05  5.16  5.09 

Crude  Protein 13  12.37  12.37 

Ether  Extract 3.07  5,29  4.07 

N.  Free  Extract 38.71  45.84  , 39.82 

Crude  Fibre 29.45  22.65  * 31.10 

Ash 9.72  7.55  8.79 


The  comparative  data  secured  were  as  follows: 

16  lambs  receiving  alsike  gained  405  pounds  in  84  days. 

16  lambs  receiving  red  clover  gained  402  pounds  in  84  days 
16  lambs  receiving  alfalfa  gained  377  pounds  in  84  days. 


Alsike  clover  consumed  i)er  pound  increase,  6.32  lbs. 

Red  clover  consumed  per  pound  increase  6,43  lbs. 

Alfalfa  consumed  per  pound  increase  6.58  lbs. 

In  this  test  both  grain  and  root  rations  were  fed  along  with  the 
legumes,  in  like  manner  and  amount.  The  results  are  in  keeping  with 
the  protein  content  of  the  food  stuffs,  alsike  being  the  highest  by  .63 
of  one  per  cent.  In  those  cases  where  similar  tests  have  been  made 
in  other  states  alfalfa  has  been  reported  al)out  2 per  cent  higher  in 
protein  contents  than  the  clover.  We  conclude  from  this  test  that  the 
feeding  values  of  the  three  legumes  are  little  different  because  of  the 
greater  yields  obtained  from  the  alfalfa,  as  comi)ared  with  the  clovers. 
The  percentage  of  waste  resulting  from  coarse  inedible  stems  was  least 
from  the  alsike  and  greatest  from  the  alfalfa. 

Fattening  Lambs  on  Clover  with  and  without  Grain. 

Montana  Station  Bulletin  No.  27. 

Three  lots  of  twenty  lambs  each  were  fed  for  ninety  days,  one  on 


10 


MOJSTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


clover  only,  the  second  on  clover  and  wheat,  and  the  third  on  clover 
and  oats.  Clover  was  worth  $6.00  per  ton,  damaged  wheat  40c.  per 
cwt.  and  oats  90c.  per  cwd..  She  damaged  wheat  was  used  in  order  to 
compare  the  financial  result  from  expensive  and  inexpensive  grain 
rations.  The  results  were  as  follows: 

Gain  per  head  per  month  from  feeding  clover  and  wheat,  10  pounds. 
Gain  “ “ “ “ “ “ “ only,  8.1  iDound& 

Gain  ‘‘  “ “ - “ “ “ “ and  oats,  10.58  pounds.. 


Food  required  per  pound  gain  with  clover  and  wheat,  clover  6.88  lbs.. 

wheat  2.8  Ibs.^ 

Food  required  per  iDound  gain  with  clover  only,  clover  11.8  lbs.. 

Food  required  per  pound  gain  with  clover  and  oats,  clover  6.10  lbs. 

oats  2.65  lbs. 


Cost  per  100  pounds  increase  from  feeding  clover  and  damaged 
wheat,  $8.22. 

Cost  per  100  pounds  increase  from  feeding  clover  only,  18.54 

Cost  i3er  100  pounds  increase  from  feeding  clover  and  oats,  |4.89 

The  conclusions  drawn  were:  (1)  That  unmarketable  wheat 
fed  to  sheep  along  with  clover  produces  good  gains  at  low  cost.  (2) 
That  while  fairly  good  gains  can  be  secured  from  feeding  lambs  on 
clover  alone,  some  grain  is  required  to  impart  a good  finish  for  ship- 
ping. (8)  High  priced  marketable  grains  render  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion too  great  without  increasing  the  live  weight  sufficiently  to  justify 
their  use.  (4)  Light  grain  rations  are  sufficient  where  legumes  are 
fed.  In  both  instances  quoted  above  only  .98  lbs.  grain  was  fed  per 
head  i^er  day  throughout  ninety  days 

Grain  Versus  Screenings  For  Fattening  Lambs. 

Montana  Station  Bulletin  No.  31. 

Two  lots  of  lambs  of  58  each  were  fed  for  eighty-eight  days,  one 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


II 


on  clover  and  marketable  oats  and  barley,  the  other  on  clover  and 
second  mill  screenings.  The  clover  was  valued  at  $5.00  per  ton,  the 
mixture  of  oats  and  barley  at  85  cents  per  cwt.  and  the  screenings  at  55 
cents  per  cwt.  The  following  results  were  secured: 

Gain  per  head  per  month  from  feeding  clover,  barley  and  oats,  8.5  lbs 
Gain  “ “ “ “ clover  and  screenings,  9.5  lbs 


Food  required  per  pound  gain  with  clover,  and  grain,  clover,  5.5  lbs 
. grain,  1.07  lbs* 

Food  required  i^er  pound  gain  with  clover  and  screenings, 

clover,  5 lbs. 
screenings,  .94  lbs. 


Cost  per  100  pounds  increase  from  feeding  clover  and  grain,  $4.34 
Cost  per  100  pounds  increase  from  feeding  clover  and  screenings,  $3.34 

The  results  from  feeding  clover  and  screenings  indicate  both 
greater  gain  in  live  weight  and  much  greater  economy  in  production 
than  where  grains  were  used.  This  is  no  doubt  due  to  the  variety 
afforded  by  the  screenings  which  are  relished  by  the  fattening  sheep » 

Clover  Versus  Grain  Hay  for  Fattening  Lambs, 

Montana  Station  Bulletin  No.  .31. 

Two'  lots  of  lambs  of  53  each  were  fed  for  60  days,  one  on  clover 
only,  the  other  on  grain  hay.  The  grain  hay  was  made  from  a mixed 
sowing  of  spring  wheat,  oats,  barley  and  peas  in  equal  amounts,  cut 
while  in  the  dough  stage.  Both  foods  were  valued  at  $5.00  per  ton. 

The  gain  per  head  i3er  month  from  the  clover  was  7 pounds. 

The  gain  per  head  X3er  month  from  ihe  grain  hay  was  5.34  pounds. 


The  clover  required  to  produce  a pound  of  gain  was  14  pounds. 
The  grain  hay  required  to  produce  a xiound  of  gain  was  18  pounds. 


12 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Cost  per  100  pounds  increase  from  feeding  clover,  $8.63. 
Cost  per  100  pounds  increase  for  feeding  grain  hay,  $4.60. 


There  was  a large  waste  from  feeding  grain  hay  consisting  of 
coarse  cereal  stems.  We  concluded  that  it  was  better  suited  to  cattle 
than  sheep. 

Effect  of  Water  Supply  on  Fattening  Lambs. 

Montana  Station  Bulletin  No.  .31. 

Seventeen  lambs  were  selected  and  fed  clover  and  screenings  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  pen  of  53  heretofore  described  except  that  the 
former  were  turned  to  water  but  once  a day  while  the  latter  had  con- 
stant access  to  it. 

The  gain  per  head  per  month  from  the  lambs  with  access  to  water 
was  9.5  x^onnds. 

The  gain  per  head  per  month  from  the  lambs  watered  once  a day 
was  7.15  x^onnds. 


Cost  of  100  pounds  increase  from  lambs  with  access  to  water,  $3.34* 

Cost  of  100  pounds  increase  from  lambs  with  restricted  water  sux)- 
ply,  $4.51. 


While  range  stock  may  lie  able  to  subsist  for  long  x^^^riods  without 
water,  these  facts  emxihasize  strongly  the  urgent  necessity  for  a con- 
stant sux^xdy  of  good  x^ure  water  for  the  fattening  lamb. 

Comparative  Results  from  Feeding  Lambs,  1-year  Wethers,  2- 
year  Wethers  and  Aged  Ewes. 

Montana  Station  Bulletin  No.  : 3. 

Four  lots  of  tyxiical  r,-,nge  ilu  ex)  were  x^rocured  and  fed  88  days 
The  foods,  water,  surroundings  and  methods  of  feeding  were  the  same 
in  all  cases. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


13 


Prices  Paid  and  Weights  when  Test  Began. 

55  lambs,  $1.62  per  head,  average  weight  62.9  pounds. 

51  one-year  wethers,  $2.50  per  head,  average  weight  94.9  pounds. 

53  two-year  wethers,  $2.65  per  hea  l,  average  weight  115.7  pounds. 

53  ewes,  $2.50  per  head,  average  weight  91.6  pounds. 

Average  Amount  of  Food  Consumed  per  Head  per  Day. 

Lambs,  clover  2.05  pounds,  barley  .68  pounds,  total  2.73  pounds. 

One-year  wethers,  clover  3.77  pounds,  barley  .68  pounds,  total  4.45 
pounds. 

Two-year  wethers,  clover  4.05  pounds,  barley  .68  pounds,  total  4.73 
pounds. 

Aged  ewes,  clover  2.33  pounds,  barley  .68  pounds,  total  3.01 
pounds. 

The  total  amount  of  food  consumed  by  the  lambs  is  rather  small, 
but  their  ration  contained  a greater  percentage  of  grain  than  those  of 
the  older  sheep. 

Relation  of  Gi^ain  to  Coarse  Food. 

% 

The  lamb  ration  consisted  of  24  per  cent  grain. 

The  one-year  wether  ration  consisted  of  15  per  cent  grain. 

The  two-year  wether  ration  consisted  of  14  jjer  cent  grain. 

The  ewe  ration  consisted  of  22  per  cent  grain. 

These  differences  in  the  percentage  of  grain  were  necessary  to 
give  the  various  lots  uniform  finish  when  slaughtered.  The  heaviest 
grain  ration  was  furnished  the  lambs  to  give  their  growthy  increase 
fatness;  this  was  not  considered  so  necessary  in  the  case  of  the  more 
mature  wethers,  whose  increase  in  weight  is  largely  fat. 

Increase  in  Live  Weight  during  Eighty-Eight  Days. 

Lambs,  23.7  pounds,  percentage  increase  37.7  per  cent. 


14 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


One-year  wethers,  28.5  pounds,  percentage  increase  24.7  per  cent. 

Two-year  wethers,  24.8  pounds,  percentage  increase  20.9  per  cent. 

Aged  ewes,  15.6  pounds,  percentage  increase  17.0  per  cent. 

The  comparative  gains  are  strikingly  brought  out  in  the  percent- 
age increase. 

Relative  Cost  of  Production. 

Lambs,  cost  per  100  pounds  increase,  $4.18. 

One-year  wethers,  cost  per  100  pounds  increase,  $5.88. 

Two-year  wethers,  cost  per  100  pounds  increase,  $5.90. 

Aged  ewes,  cost  per  100  pounds  increase,  $6.78. 

While  the  lamb  and  ewe  rations  contained  the  same  foods  in  about 
the  same  proportions,  the  wether  rations  contained  milch  less  grain. 

Food  Required[for  Maintenance  and  per  Pound  Increase. 

Lambs,' dry  food  consumed  per  iiound  increase,  10.16  pounds. 

One-year  wethers,  dry  food  consumed  per  pound  increase,  16.6 
pounds. 

Two-year  wethers,  dry  food  consumed  per  pound  increase,  17.1 
pounds. 

Aged  ewes,  dry  food  consumed  per  pound  increase,  17.5  pounds. 

These  amounts  are  larger  than  they  would  have  been  had  more 
grain  been  used  in  the  ration  as  heretofore  indicated. 

Slaughter  Test  Report  (By  Swift  & Co.). 

55  lambs,  average  79  pounds,  price  $6.80,  dress  54.2  per  cent. 

51  one-year  wethers,  average  108  pounds,  price  $5.85,  dress  52.9 
per  cent. 

58  two-year  wethers,  average  128  i^ounds  price  $5.40,  dress  58.5 
per  cent. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


15 


58  ewes,  average  95  pounds,  price  $4.75,  dress  50.6  per  cent. 

“We  consider  all  of  these  sheep  a useful  class  of  stock,  not  too 
ifat,  and  they  are  dressed  about  2 per  cent  above  the  average,  coming 
io  the  Chicago  market  at  the  present  time.” 

The  percentage  of  dressed  weight  is  figured  on  a basis  of  actual 
weight  immediately  after  killing,  shrunk  8 per  cent,  which  is  about 
what  mutton  will  shrink  after  hanging  over  night. 


BULLHTIN  No.  40 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

Experiment  Station, 


OF  THE 


A.^ric\iltural  College  of  Montana. 


ROOT  CROPS  IN  MONTANA. 


Bozeman,  Montana,  November,  1902. 


REPUBLICAN, 
Bozeman,  Montana, 
1902. 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 


iment  Stati 

BOZEHAN,  = MONTANA; 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 

Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor,  ^ . 

James  Donovan,  Attorney-General,  v Ex-Officio Helena. 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  ) 

J.  M.  Evans, Missoula. 

C.  R..  Leonard, Butte. 

N.  W.  McConnell, Helena. 

W.  M.  Johnston Billings. 

O.  P.  Chisholm, Bozeman. 

J.  G.  McKay, Hamilton. 

G.  T.  Paul, Dillon. 

N.  B.  Holter, Helena. 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 

Walter  S.  Hartman,  President, Bozeman. 

J.  M.  Robinson,  Vice-President, Bozeman. 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary, Bozeman. 

Joseph  Kountz, Bozeman. 

E.  B.  Lamme, Bozeman. 


STATION  STAFF. 

Samuel,  Fortier,  Ma.  E., Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer; 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S., Chemist. 

F.  B.  Linfield,  B.  S.  a, Agriculturist. 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D., Botanist. 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc., Entomologist. 

R.  W.  Fisher,  B.  S., Assistant  Horticulturist. 

Edmund  Burke Assistant  Chemist. 


Postoffice,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be  addressed  to  the 
Director. 

MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


Notice. — The  Bulletins  of  the  Station  will  ^be  mailed  free  to  any  citizen  of 
Montana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the  Station  for  that  purpose. 


Montana  Experiment  Station. 


JULLETIN  NO.  40, 


NOVEMBER,  1902. 


ROOT  CROPS  IN  MONTANA 


By  R.  S.  SHAW 


W hile  root  crops  have  hitherto  been  grown  in  small  quantities 
ily  in  Montana,  there  is  nevertheless  a useful  place  for  them.  The 
d grazing  system  and  the  more  recent  work  of  production  of  grains 
e rapidly  giving  way  to  a diversified  farming  as  the  cultivated  areas 
>e  being  extended  and  tilled  in  a more  progressive  manner.  Field 
:ots  will  hereafter  play  an  important  part  in  the  stock  feeding  opera- 
bns  of  the  farmer,  for  even  though  it  has  been  clearly  demonstrated 
fat  beets  can  be  successfully  produced  for  sugar  making,  there  are  no 
anufacturing  plants  in  the  state  to  use  them  for  this  purpose  and 
fell  may  not  be  made  accessible  to  the  majority  of  farmers  in  the 
'te  for  some  time  to  come.  Our  plan,  therefore,  is  to  discuss  the 
'"stion  from  the  stock-growers’  standpoint. 


4 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


We  take  the  ground  that  farmers  that  are  so  situated  should  raise 
small  areas  of  roots  each  season  for  winter  feeding;  for  such  work  can 
be  conducted  on  every  farm  in  Montana  where  grain,  legumes  and 
roots  can  be  grown.  The  growth  of  large  areas  of  root  crops  is  at 
present  not  recommended  and  in  fact  should  be  discouraged  for  the 
reasons,  that  in  general  we  are  not  prepared  to  handle,  house  and  dis- 
pose of  large  'crops  It  is  a good  plan  to  start  with  from  one-half  to 
one  acre  and  this  area  can  be  enlarged  to  suit  the  demand.  Already 
some  objections  have  been  raised  against  the  growing  of  roots  in  Mon- 
tana, such  as,  high  price  of  labor  and  amount  of  work  involved  and 
lack  of  storage  facilities.  The  cost  of  production  and  many  difficulties 
pertaining  thereto  can  be  easily  overcome  by  making  use  of  the  proper 
methods  of  culture  and  harvesting  for  our  conditions;  it  is  these  we 
propose  discussing  more  fully. 


Value  and  Use  of  Root  Crops* 

Proof  has  already  been  secured  which  demonstrates  clearly  the 
usefulness  of  mangolds,  carrots,  sugar  beets,  turnips  and  rutabagas 
under  our  farm  conditions.  There  is  no  class  of  stock  kept  on  the 
ranch  during  the  winter  which  can  not  be  made  to  use  some  one,  two 
or  more  of  these  to  good  advantage.  In  most  cases  it  may  not  be  well 
to  grow  all  live  kinds,  as  some  are  better  suited  for  certain  purposes. 
The  kind  or  kinds  grown  must  be  governed  somewhat  by  the  soil  and 
climatic  conditions  and  the  class  of  live  stock  to  which  they  are  to  bt 
fed.  For  the  horse,  carrots  are  pre-eminently  suitable;  for  the  dair} 
cow,  mangolds,  carrots  and  sugar  beets;  for  the  beef  steer  and  th( 
sheep  all  are  suitable;  for  the  pig,  mangolds,  carrots  and  sugar  beets 
for  the  chicken,  mangolds  only.  This  classification  of  general  utiiit) 
is  based  upon  the  use  of  roots  in  the  raw  condition. 

The  advantages  derived  from  the  use  of  field  roots  in  feeding  hv(. 
stock  is  due  rather  to  a secondary  action  than  to  the  actual  amount  c i 
nutriment  supplied  by  them.  During  the  winter  season  when  dr 
foods  only  are  available  they  furnish  a succulent  adjunct  which  act;  ^ 
as  a tonic,  stimulating  digestion,  increasing  the  flow  of  milk  and  caus ' 
ing  a great  saving  in  the  more  expensive  grain  foods.  Station  test 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


5 


here  as  well  as  elsewhere  have  proved  that  roots  and  grain  form  a more 
economical  ration  for  pigs  than  grain  only;  that  the  increase  in  live 
weight  is  relatively  greater,  the  cost  of  production  less  and  the  quality 
of  the  meat  of  a higher  grade.  The  comparative  feeding  values  will 
be  discussed  in  another  publication. 

Conditions  in  Montana  are  Suited  to  Root  Crops, 

Though  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are  extremely  variable, 
there  is  scarcely  a single  cultivated  portion  of  the  state  under  irriga- 
tion where  one  or  more  varieties  of  field  roots  cannot  be  grown,  from 
the  lowest  point  up  to  an  altitude  of  several  thousand  feet.  Abundant 
proof  of  this  assertion  has  been  secured  by  the  Experiment  Station  in 
regard  to  the  sugar  beet  which  has  been  almost  universally  produced 
in  the  state  with  satisfactory  results  from  a sugar  making  standpoint; 
of  the  several  classes  of  roots  it  is  probably  the  most  difficult  to  pro- 
duce. The  mangold  cannot  be  produced  with  best  results  at  high 
altitudes  where  the  growing  season  is  short;  the  greater  i^art  of  its 
growth  being  above  ground  with  a sparse  covering  of  leaves  the  flesh, 
which  is  covered  with  a thin  skin,  is  easily  damaged  by  early  frosts. 
If  frozen  the  roots  do  not  keep  well  during  the  winter.  The 
other  four  classes  are  not  so  readily  injured  by  frost  and  all  grow  late 
in  the  season.  In  some  sections  particularly  where  the  soil  is  clayey 
or  where  the  growth  is  retarded  by  lack  of  moisture,  both  turnips  and 
rutabagas  are  seriously  damaged  by  the  green  aphis,  the  ravages  of 
which  are  much  worse  some  se’asons  than  others.  Of  the  whole  num- 
ber carrots  have  been  less  liable  to  the  ravages  of  insect  pests,  though 
mangolds  and  sugar  beets  are  seldom  attacked.  As  yet  plant  diseases 
of  a fungoid  nature  are  entirely  unknown  among  root  crops  in  Mon- 
tana. 


Soils  Suitable  for  Root  Crops. 

While  these  differ  slightly  for  the  several  classes  and  will  be  dis- 
cussed more  specifically  later,  in  general,  the  heavier  loams  are  best 
suited.  Heavy  clays  are  not  suitable  in  any  case  and  humus  or  muck 
soils  are  productive  of  quantity  rather  than  (piality.  While  the  best 


6 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


results  will  be  secured  from  clay  and  sandy  loams  containing  some 
humus  the  yields  will  decrease  as  the  soils  become  sandy  or  gravelly 
both  through  lack  of  plant  food  and  the  inability  of  these  soils  to 
retain  moisture.  The  land  chosen  should  be  so  located  that  water  can 
be  applied  just  when  needed;  it  should  also  be  as  nearly  level  as  pos- 
sible with  just  sufficient  fall  for  irrigation.  Where  the  fall  is  too 
great  with  the  system  of  furrow  irrigation  used,  there  is  much  washing 
of  the  soil  and  resulting  injury  to  the  crop. 

Preparation  of  SoiL 

III  this  there  will  be  some  slight  differences  according  to  the  cli- 
matic conditions,  soil,  and  the  crop  to  be  grown.  In  all  cases  deep 
plowing  must  precede  the  crop  and  in  some  cases  this  must  be  in  the 
spring  and  in  others  in  the  fall.  In  those  portions  of  the  state  where 
the  soil  is  somewhat  heavy,  where  there  is  a large  amount  of  snowfall 
followed  by  copious  spring  rains  and  where  as  a result  the  ground  is 
impacted,  then  spring  plowing  will  be  necessary  in  certain  seasons  but 
under  these  conditions  light  porous  soils  should  be  fall  plowed.  Hard, 
dry,  imiDenetrable  soils  produce  prongy  roots  which  are  particularly 
objectionable  in  the  case  of  the  sugar  beet.  Throughout  the  more  arid 
sections  with  scant  snowfall  and  spring  rain  the  ground  should  he 
plowed  deep  in  the  fall  and  in^xy  also  be  cultiuated  some  at  that  time. 
In  preparing  the  seetl  bed  some  form  of  cultivator  should  be  used 
which  will  cut  deep  and  leave  an  even  surface,  this  should  be  followed 
by  a smoothing  harrow  to  level  the  ground  and  bring  the  lumps  to  the 
surfac(\  If  the  ground  is  too  loose  or  lumpy  it  should  be  rolled  before 
seeding.  After  this  the  ground  is  ready  for  marking  and  sowing. 
Where  only  a small  area  is  sown  it  will  be  better  to  mark  off  the  drills 
in  order  to  have  them  straight  and  a uniform  distance  a|)art  which  not 
only  adds  to  the  appearance  but  renders  cultivation  and  irrigation 
more  easy  and  less  liable  to  injure  the  cro^xs.  A marker  may  be  con- 
structed as  follows:  Cut  several  wooden  runners  about  eighteen  inches 
long  out  of  one  by  eight-inch  boards  and  round  them  off  at  one  end  in 
about  the  same  shape  as  a sleigh  runner;  this  rounded  edge  should 
also  be  brought  to  a wedge  shape.  These  runners  are  then  fastened 
together,  side  by  side,  the  distance  apart  which  the  rows  are  required 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


7 


by  nailing  two  1x6  inch  strips  across  the  tops.  A light  strip  is  then 
attached  to  the  centre  of  the  marker  by  which  k can  be  drawn.  With 
a marker  of  this  kind  five  or  six  feet  in  width  an  acre  of  ground  can  be 
marked  off  in  an  hour  or  two.  The  runners  can  be  changed  so  as  to 
suit  the  requirements  as  to  distance  in  marking  for  any  of  the  root 
crops  or  potatoes.  This  method  is  suggested  for  small  areas  only, 
larger  areas  should  be  marked  and  planted  by  a seeder  for  the  purpose. 

Seeding. 

Where  large  areas  are  to  be  grown  year  after  year,  a regular  root 
drill  should  be  secured.  In  the  case  of  mangoLIs  or  sugar  beets,  the 
seeds  of  which  are  large,  the  sowing  may  be  performed  with  an  ordi- 
nary grain  drill  by  stopping  up  some  tubes  to  give  the  rows  a proper 
distance  apart.  But  where  only  small  areas  are  phinted  the  work  can 
be  well  done  with  a good  hand  seeder  of  which  the  Planet  Junior  is  a 
fair  type.  Using  one  of  these  a man  can  sow  one  acre  of  sugar  beets, 
with  rows  two  feet  apart,  in  from  three  to  four  hours.  These  i)lanters 
can  be  adjusted  to  sow  all  kinds  of  field  roots  and  garden  seeds  as  well. 
Every  farmer  who  i^lants  a garden  should  use  one.  The  methods  of 
cultivation  and  irrigation  required  by  the  various  root  crops  will  be  left 
till  these  are  discussed  individually. 

Harvesting. 

The  labor  required  and  the  cost  of  this  oi)eration  are  among  the 
strongest  arguments  urged  against  the  })roduction  of  root  crops.  If 
the  jDractice  of  hcind  f)ulling'  is  followed  much  hard  work  and  expendi- 
ture are  required.  The  plan  followed  at  the  Exx^eriment  Station  has 
been  the  following  . The  first  ojjeration  in  harvesting  consists  in  re- 
moving the  top.  This  can  be  rapidly  and  easily  accomplished  with  a 
sharp  hoe,  the  work  being  done  nearly  as  fast  as  a man  can  walk.  It 
is  most  easily  accomplished  in  the  case  of  the  rutabaga,  the  toip  of 
which  is  supported  on  a neck.  With  practice  and  the  exercise  of 
l^roj^er  care  all  classes  of  roots  can  be  topped  in  this  manner.  Excex)- 
tion  may  be  urged  in  the  case  of  the  mangold,  as  it  has  been  consider- 
ed necessary  to  twist  the  tops  off  in  i3reference  to  cutting  the  root. 


8 MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


which  renders  them  more  liable  to  decompose.  While  this  is  true  in 
humid  climates,  it  does  not  hold  good  under  our  arid  conditions,  In 
the  case  of  sugar  beets  to  be  used  for  manufacture  it  is  desirable  that 
a portion  of  the  crown  be  removed  with  the  top. 

The  next  operation  in  harvesting  consists  in  plowing  the  roots 
out.  The  deep  rooted  crops,  such  as  mangolds,  sugar  beets  and  car- 
rots, can  not  be  overturned  in  many  cases,  owing  to  the  depth  which 
the  plow  would  need  to  go.  In  such  cases  our  practice  is  to  plow  a 
deep  furrow  away  from  the  roots  and  so  close  up  to  the  row  that  the 
roots  are  left  exposed.  They  can  then  be  thrown  into  piles  or  gathered 
in  a wagon.  In  doing  this  work  only  one  row  at  a time  can  be  re- 
moved, or  two  when  working  from  both  sides  of  the  patch.  If  a number 
of  rows  were  plowed  before  removing  the  outer  ones  these  may  be 
partially  covered  when  the  rows  are  close  together.  Both  mangolds 
and  rutabagas  can  be  plowed  out.  The  draught  should  be  so  arranged 
as  to  cause  the  plow  to  cut  a V shaped  furrow  directly  under  the  roots. 
As  these  two  crops  grow  on  the  surface  so  little  earth  is  moved  by  the 
plow  that  a whole  field  can  be  plowed  out  at  once.  If  care  is  taken 
not  to  plow  too  deep  the  roots  will  be  left  exposed.  In  all  cases  a 
plow  cutting  not  wider  than  ten  inches  will  give  the  best  results.  Some 
form  of  garden  plow  will  answer  well.  For  large  crops  a sugar  beet 
harvester  should  be  used. 


Storing 

The  most  satisfactor}^  and  permanent  results  in  storing  are  to  be 
secured  from  a root  cellar  built  in  an  excavation,  the  object  being  to 
get  below  ground  for  security  against  frost.  Storage  houses  for  roots 
and  potatoes  are  not  as  satisfactory  and  are  expensive.  The  walls 
surrounding  an  excavated  cellar,  where  there  is  little  exposure  to  the 
atmosphere  and  its  weathering  infiuences,  can  be  made  of  concrete, 
which  is  a cheap  form  of  wall,  as  cobble  stones  for  the  structure  can 
be  found  on  nearly  every  farm  and  aside  from  the  amount  of  lime  and 
cement  required  there  is  little  exi:)ense  except  for  the  labor,  which  in 
most  cases  can  be  performed  by  the  farmer  during  seasons  when  work 
is  least  prcjssing.  One  of  the  main  objects  to  be  considered  in  a case 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


9 


of  this  kind  is  ventilation;  the  climatic  conditions  are  such  that  the 
protective  qualities  of  a root  house  are  not,  put  to  the  extreme  test 
except  during  a few- cold  spells  of  short  duration.  Throughout  the 
balance  of  the  time  the  necessary  ventilation  should  be  available  so- 
that  the  temperature  may  be  kept  as  near  32  degrees  without  freezing, 
which  will  give  the  best  results.  Owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  air  it 
has  been  found  that  our  root  crops  will  keep  much  better  in  storage 
where  some  dirt  is  carried  in  along  with  them,  such  as  may  adhere  in 
harvesting.  This  is  particularly  true  of  sugar  beets.  The  earth  should 
not,  however,  be  allowed  to  become  packed  as  might  occur  underneath 
a window  or  the  drop  where  roots  are  shoveled  in,  for  in  this  case  they 
would  heat  and  rot.  In  storing  root  crops  high  temperatures  must  be 
avoided. 

Pitting  may  also  be  resorted  to,  but  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  a 
cellar.  Under  such  conditions  the  continuous  use  of  roots  for  feeding 
is  interfered  with  during  the  extremely  cold  spells  as  some  days  the 
pit  would  have  to  remain  closed  to  prevent  the  access  of  frost.  In 
constructing  a pit,  a high,  well  drained  piece  of  ground  should  be 
chosen.  The  roots  should  be  piled  in  long  piles,  the  bottom  of  the 
pile  about  four  feet  wide,  with  the  sides  sloping  uj3ward,  to  meet  at  a 
point  3^  feet  above  the  center  of  the  pile;  the  length  of  the  pit  can  be 
governed  by  the  conditions.  As  soon  as  roots  are  piled  cover  them 
with  a layer  of  about  three  inches  of  straw,  free  from  chalf;  then  cover 
the  straw  with  earth  taken  up  from  near  the  edges  of  the  pit  in  such  a 
way  as  to  form  a ditch  around  the  same  for  drainage.  Early  in  the 
season  not  more  than  an  inch  or  two  of  earth  should  be  placed  on  the 
straw,  but  later,  as  cold  weather  approaches,  double  the  amount  of 
earth,  and  prevent  freezing  in  future  by  coverings  of  manure,  used  in 
such  quantity  as  the  severity  of  the  weather  may  require.  Where  the 
conditions  are  extreme,  or  for  potatoes,  a double  covering  may  be  used 
as  follows:  First  cover  with  straw  and  then  with  a thin  layer  of  earth,, 
which  is  allowed  to  freeze,  then  follow  with  another  layer  of  straw  and 
more  earth.  In  this  method  a dead  air  space  is  maintained  and  the 
roots  or  potatoes  enclosed  are  not  effected  by  fluctuations  in  tempera- 
ture from  without.  In  extreme  weather  a manure  covering  would  be 
needed  as  in  the  first  case. 


10 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Sugar  Beets. 

Practical  demonstrations  prove  that  beets  can  be  produced  in 
Montana  for  sugar  production  quite  as  successfully  as  anywhere  in  the 
world;  this  is  true  both  as  regards  quality  and  yield.  As  there  are  no 
factories  for  the  production  of  beet  sugar  in  the  state  at  present,  and 
as  this  publication  is  being  prepared  more  especially  for  the  stockman 
and  farmer  who  may  be  interested  in  feeding  problems,  the  following 
data  relating  to  culture  will  apply  more  specifically  to  the  production 
of  these  roots  for  feeding  purposes. 

(1)  NATURE  OF  GROWTH. 

The  sugar  beet  is  particularly  characterized  as  a deep  grower,  pro- 
ducing a long  conical  tap  root  extending  on  the  average  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  inches  deep.  When  x^roperly  planted  and  cultivated,  this 
growth  should  be  almost  entirely  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground; 
because  of  this  and  the  additional  fact  that  the  top  consists  of  spread- 
ing short  stemmed  leaves,  these  plants  are  not  injured  by  the  earlier 
frosts. 

(2)  SOILS  BEST  SUITED. 

On  suitable  soils  with  proper  conditions  sugar  beets  can  be  grown 
from  sea  level  up  to  an  altitude  of  5,000  feet,  but  a short  season  is  a 
disadvantage.  Stiff  clay  soils  should  be  avoided,  and  humus  and  muck 
soils,  while  not  suited  to  the  growth  of  the  best  quality  of  beets  for 
sugar  making,  can  be  use  1 where  stock  food  is  being  produced.  Sandy 
loams  are  preferable,  but  any  rich  loam  will  answer.  The  soil  should 
be  deep,  as  the  presence  of  hardpan  too  near  the  surface  causes  x3rongy 
roots.  Under  semi-arid  conditions,  when  poor  soils  are  used,  requiring 
farmyard  manure,  this  should  always  be  applied  with  the  preceding 
croii. 

(5)  PREPARATION  OF  SEED  BED. 

In  general,  the  plowing  should  be  deep  and  done  in  the  fall  except 
under  those  local  conditions  where  heavy  snows  or  siting  rains  solidify 
the  ground,  then  it  should  be  replowed  in  the  spring  and  thoroughly 
cultivated  to  reduce  it  to  fineness  and  render  it  retentive  of  moisture. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


11 


Spring  plowing  should  be  done  early  and  followed  by  cultivation  at 
intervals  till  sowing  time  and  preparation  completed  as  heretofore 
described. 

(4)  PLANTING. 

In  this  the  time  will  depend  on  local  conditions,  of  which  we  have 
an  endless  variety ; but  in  general  the  planting  should  be  done  as  early 
as  the  working  of  the  soil  and  the  climatic  conditions  will  permit. 
The  rows  should  not  be  more  than  two  feet  apart;  a less  distance  is 
recommended  ingrowing  beets  for  sugar  making  but  for  the  purpose 
given  two  feet  will  answer  well,  providing  more  room  for  cultivation. 
The  rows  should  be  laid  out  in  such  a manner  that  a fall  of  not  more 
than  three-fourths  of  an  inch  to  the  rod  will  be  given;  if  the  fall  is 
greater  the  tendency  will  be  to  wash  the  soil  from  between  the  rows, 
leaving  the  minute  roots  exposed  and  injuring  the  plants.  Large 
areas  should  be  sown  with  a regular  drill  but  smaller  ones  with  a garden 
seeder.  Not  less  than  twelve  pounds  of  seed  should  be  used  per  acre, 
in  order  to  insure  a perfect  stand.  If  the  soil  is  moist  plant  the  seed 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  deei^;  if  dry,  one  and  one-quarter  inches  or 
even  a little  more. 

(5)  CULTIVATION. 

If  a heavy  loam  should  bake  as  the  result  of  a dashing  rain,  the 
plants  may  be  prevented  from  coming  through.  In  extreme  cases 
only,  where  the  crop  is  thus  endangered,  a very  light  harrowing- 
may  save  it,  if  done  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  and  before  the 
plants  reach  the  surface;  this  should  only  be  attempted  in  extreme 
cases.  For  small  areas  of  an  acre  or  so,  cultivation  by  means  of  a 
hand  wheel  hoe  should  be  given  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  all  nicely 
through  the  ground ; adjust  the  wheel  hoe  with  the  two-knife  attach- 
ment made  to  run  one  on  each  side  and  close  up  against  the  row. 
This  prompt  cultivation  will  prevent  evaporation  and  save  much 
future  labor  by  destroying  the  young  weeds.  The  remaining  por- 
tions of  the  spaces  between  the  rows  may  be  left  for  horse  cultiva- 
tion later.  The  wheel  hoe  can  be  used  before  such  time  as  a horse 
could  follow  the  row  and  also  avoids  the  danger  of  covering  the  small 
plants  with  a horse  cultivator.  Subsequent  cultivation  should  be  fre- 


12  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

quent,  deep  at  first  and  shallower  as  the  season  advances.  Thin  the- 
plants  to  eight  inches  apart  in  the  row  when  the  second  pair  of  leaves, 
appear  and  when  about  two  inches"  high,  without  drawing  the  earth 
away  from  the  plant;  later  thinning  is  both  more  injurious  and  diflfi- 
cult.  In  the  thinning  the  interspaces  can  be  cleared  by  means  of  a 
hoe  and  the  remaining  bnnches  thinned  by  hand.  Where  the- 
plants  are  not  too  thick  the  work  can  all  be  done  by  a hoe  in  the  hands 
of  an  expert.  The  more  the  hands  are  used  in  thinning  the  more  it 
becomes  a necessity.  If  the  beets  are  properly  thinned  and  the  weeds- 
all  removed  from  the  row  at  the  same  time  subsequent  use  of  the  hoe- 
will  be  very  little  required.  Do  the  work  well  the  first  time. 

lERIGATION. 

Preparations  for  this  are  made  at  the  same  time  cultivation  is  be- 
ing given.  By  attaching  a v-shaped  point  to  the  centre  of  the  rear 
shank  of  the  cultivator  a small  scratch  or  furrow  is  left  to  lead  the 
water,  and  the  smaller  this  is  the  better  providing  it  answers  the  pur- 
pose without  overfiowing.  Flooding  should  ahvays  be  avoided  with 
care.  The  amount  of  irrigation  will  depend  on  the  local  precipitation,, 
some  localities  requiring  one,  others  two  and  still  others  three  ax3plica- 
tions.  The  indications  of  need  of  water  are  the  turning  dark  green 
of  the  top  leaves  and  the  wilting  of  the  lower  ones.  The  water  should 
be  allowed  to  run  till  the  earth  between  the  furrows  all  turns  dark 
from  saturation  when  it  should  be  promptly  turned  off.  Cultivate 
lightly  as  soon  as  ground  is  dry  enough  after  irrigation  to  prevent 
evaporation. 

Sugar  beets  may  be  irrigated  ux3  to  within  six  weeks  of  harvest- 
ing. They  should  not  be  harvested  while  frozen.  Though  humus  or 
muck  soils  and  those  containing  some  alkali  produce  beets  of  a poor 
quality  for  sugar  making,  this  need  not  deter  the  farmer  producing 
them  for  stock  food. 

Mangolds. 

These  are  admirably  adapted  to  all  classes  of  live  stock  but  are 
especially  valued  for  milch  cows  as  they  can  be  freely  used  without 
danger  of  tainting  the  milk.  As  a winter  food  for  fowls  none  other 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


18 


•can  replace  them  when  fed  raw.  Mangolds  are  of  several  varieties 
differing  in  color  as  red,  orange  and  yellow:  and  also  in  shape,  as  ob- 
long or  globular.  The  long  varieties  usually  give  much  larger  yields. 

(!)  NATURE  OF  GROWTH. 

The  mangold  is  particularly  characterized  by  an  upward  tendency 
of  growth  so  that  when  mature  a large  portion  of  the  root  is  exposed. 
The  leaves  are  more  sensitive  to  frost  than  the  sugar  beet  and  the  same 
is  also  true  of  the  root  which  is  covered  by  a very  thin  skin. 

(2)  SOILS  BEST  SUITED. 

These  are  all  deep  soils  rich  in  organic  matter.  Clay  loams,  strong 
sandy  loams,  and  dark  prairie  soils  are  especially  adapted,  while  stiff 
■clays  and  light  sands  are  less  suitable. 

(8)  PREPARATION  OF  SEED  BED. 

In  general  the  same  as  for  sugar  beets. 

(4)  PLANTING. 

Those  methods  described  for  the  sugar  beet  will  apply  in  general 
to  the  mangold  also.  From  six  to  eight  pounds  of  seed  is  required  per 
acre,  but  the  amount  should  be  governed  by  suitability  of  the  soil  and 
■conditions.  The  distance  between  the  rows  and  also  the  plants  in  the 
row  will  vary  with  the  variety  chosen,  the  conditions  of  the  soil,  the 
earliness  or  lateness  of  sowing  and  the  length  of  the  growing  season. 
The  larger  the  variety,  the  richer  the  land,  the  earlier  the  date  of  seed- 
ing and  the  longer  the  season,  the  wider  apart  should  be  both  rows  and 
plants  in  the  row  and  vice  versa.  Twenty-seven  inches  is  an  average 
distance  for  the  rows  and  twelve  inches  for  the  plants  in  the  row. 

(5)  CULTIVATION  AND  IRRIGATION. 

In  general  the  same  as  for  sugar  beets. 

Carrots. 

This  crop  can  be  grown  with  more  certainty  throughout  the  state 
than  any  other  and  is  less  liable  to  attacks  of  disease  and  insect  pests 
than  any  other.  They  are  equally  useful  for  all  classes  of  live  stock 


14 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


and  especially  for  horses  at  that  season  of  the  year  when  they  are  de- 
prived of  succulent  food,  as  they  are  greatly  relished  by  them  in  the 
raw  state. 

(1)  NATURE  OF  GROWTH. 

It  is  such  that  the  carrot  crop  is  not  injured  by  the  early  frosts 
of  spring  or  autumn  and  has  great  power  to  resist  drouth  so  that 
when  started  in  the  early  spring  a crop  can  be  looked  for  with  al- 
most unfailing  certainty.  Crops  can  be  produced  without  irrigation 
in  those  sections  where  there  is  some  sub-irrigation  or  a fair  amount 
of  rainfall.  The  carrot  is  a deep  grower,  developing  entirely  within 
the  ground.  The  varieties  are  classified  as  long,  medium  and  short; 
and  also  by  their  color,  as  red,  orange  and  white.  The  long 
varieties  are  losing  favor  owing  to  the  difficulty  in  harvesting 
them. 

(2)  SOILS  BEST  SUITED 

Almost  any  soil  with  a fair  amount  of  plant  food  will  give  a 
good  crop  of  carrots.  The  favorite  soils  are  those  of  a deep  loamy 
character,  capable  of  retaining  moisture.  Some  varieties  are  better 
adapted  than  others  to  shallower  or  heavier  soils. 

(3)  P.REPARATION  OF  SEED  BED. 

In  this  the  work  should  be  much  the  same  as  for  sugar  beets 
and  mangolds  but  most  of  the  work  should  be  done  in  the  autumn. 
The  preparatory  cultivation  should  be  performed  with  a view  to 
cleaning  the  ground  from  weeds.  The  spring  cultivation  should 
consist  in  preparing  a fine  mellow  seed  bed. 

(4)  PLANTING. 

As  there  is  little  danger  of  injury  from  frost,  plant  as  early  as 
possible.  Small  areas  will  produce  enormous  yields  if  properly 
handled  and  these  are  most  satisfactorily  sown  with  a hand  seeder. 
Eighteen  inches  between  the  rows  will  suffice  for  the  crop,  but 
twenty-four  is  more  frequently  given  to  facilitate  the  ease  of  horse 
cultivation.  From  two  to  four  pounds  of  seed  are  required  per  acre 
according  to  the  suitability  of  the  conditions. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


15 


(5)  CULTIVATION. 

This  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  young  plants  mark  the  line  of 
the  row,  using  the  method  heretofore  described  for  mangolds  and  sugar 
beets.  Prompt  cultivation  is  more  necessary  in  the  case  of  the  carrot 
as  it  is  slow  to  germinate  and  come  up,  thus  giving  all  weeds  a good 
start.  From  a consideration  of  both  quantity  and  quality  the  best 
results  will  be  secured  from  thinning  the  plants  to  four  inches  apart 
in  the  row.  This  is  the  tedious  and  expensive  operation  of  carrot 
culture  as  the  thinning  must  be  done  entirely  by  hand.  Where,  ow- 
ing to  adverse  conditions  or  poor  seed  the  stand  may  be  somewhat 
thin  and  irregular,  a good  crop  may  result  without  any  thinning. 

(6)  lEKIGATION. 

This  should  be  performed  by  the  method  described  and  less  water 
will  suffice  than  for  most  other  root  crops. 

The  harvesting  which  has  been  generally  regarded  as  a laborious 
and  expensive  operation  can  be  quickly  and  easily  performed  by  the 
method  heretofore  described  and  need  not  be  done  before  the  ap- 
proach of  winter. 

Turnips. 

These  are  of  two  varieties,  viz.,  those  of  JSwedish  origin  com- 
monly called  Swedes  or  rutabagas;  the  other  class  being  known  as 
Fall  Turnips.  The  Swede  turnips  have  the  firmer  fiesh  and  are  the 
better  keepers;  they  are  known  by  the  purple,  green  or  purplish 
green  color  of  the  top  of  the  bulb  and  by  the  leaves  which  are  a 
darker  color  than  the  fall  varieties.  Fall  turnips  vary  greatly  in  the 
comparative  strength  of  the  tops  and  in  the  size,  color,  shape  and 
texture  of  the  bulbs.  Turnips  form  an  excellent  food  for  many  classes 
of  live  stock,  but  can  not  be  satisfactorily  fed  to  swine  if  raw,  or  to 
milch  cows  without  ilanger  of  tainting  the  milk. 

(1)  NATURE  OF  GROWTH. 

This  is  such  as  to  especially  adapt  them  to  moist,  cool  climates, 
but  they  give  remarkable  results  in  Montana  wherever  grown  under 


16  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


irrigation.  The  greater  portion  of  their  growth  is  made  with  great 
rapidity  in  the  autumn  months. 

{2)  SOILS  BEST  SUITED. 

Those  of  a free  working,  loamy  nature  are  best  for  turnips,  es- 
pecially where  containing  some  sand  but  not  sufficient  to  render 
them  poor.  Rich  muck  soils  tend  to  stimulate  too  great  a growth 
of  tops  with  a corresponding  deficiency  in  root.  Our  valley  soils, 
however,  are  well  suited  to  the  growth  of  the  turnip. 

(8)  The  preparation  of  the  land  should  be  somewhat  similar  to 
that  heretofore  described  as  being  deep  and  thorough. 

(4)  PLANTING. 

This  may  be  delayed  to  as  late  as  June  10th  in  those  localities 
where  there  are  late  spring  rains  to  germinate  the  seeds;  in  drier 
sections  sowing  should  take  place  earlier.  Twenty-seven  inches  is  a 
suitable  distance  between  rows  and  from  two  to  four  pounds  of  seed 
are  required  per  acre.  The  seed  may  be  sown  with  hand  seeder  or  by 
means  of  a field  drill  providing  the  turnip  seed  is  mixed  with  some 
kind  of  meal  or  sawdust  or  dry  earth  to  give  it  bulk. 

(5.)  Cultivation. 

Should  begin  early  and  be  frequently  repeated.  The  plants 
should  be  thinned  to  twelve  inches  apart  as  soon  as  two  or  three  inches 
high.  The  work  can  all  be  preformed  by  means  of  a hoe,  as  the  plants 
are  not  so  liable  to  injury  as  sugar  beets  or  mangolds. 

(6).  Irrigation  should  be  practiced  sufficiently  often  to  keep  the 
turnip  ifiants  growing  vigorously.  This  is  the  most  successful  method 
of  counteracting  the  attack  of  plant  lice.  The  slow  growing  plants  are 
the  first  to  be  attacked  and  the  first  to  succumb. 

Harvesting  need  not  take  place  till  late  in  autumn  owing  to  the 
late  continued  growth  and  ability  of  the  turnip  to  withstand  the 
frost.  The  crop  can  be  topped  by  means  of  a hoe  and  plowed  out 
.as  described. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


17 


Potatoes* 

The  culture  of  potatoes  must  necessarily  be  greatly  ditferent  be- 
cause of  the  almost  unlimited  variety  of  conditions  under  which  they 
are  grown  throughout  the  state.  The  methods  considered  must  there- 
fore be  general  rather  than  specific.  Potatoes  can  be  successfully 
grown  in  Montana,  both  with  and  without  irrigation;  in  the  latter  case, 
however,  only  in  such  sections  w’here  the  ground  is  moist  from  sub-ir- 
rigation or  where  there  is  more  than  the  average  precipitation. 

Selection  of  Varieties. 

These  may  be  classed  as  early,  medium  and  late,  and  such  a 
schedule  may  be  obtained  from  the  Experiment  Station  at  any  time  as 
all  new  varieties  are  collected  for  testing.  In  most  sections  above  an 
altitude  of  6000  feet,  early  varieties  only  should  be  grown;  medium 
sorts  between  4000  and  6000  feet;  and  the  later  kinds  below  4000  feet. 
The  yields  per  acre  are  least  from  the  early  varieties,  increasing  as  the 
time  for  maturity  extends. 

Suitable  Soil. 

The  best  results,  considering  both  quality  and  quantity,  are  to  be 
secured  from  rich  loams  containing  some  sand  and  much  humus;  stiff 
clays,  mucks  and  light  sands  are  undesirable. 

SELECTING  SEED. 

Too  often  the  variety  chosen  is  selected  because  of  a large  total 
yield  with  too  little  regard  for  quality.  The  value  of  a variety  depends 
upon  the  percentage  of  marketable  potatoes  produced  rather  than 
from  the  total  yield.  This  is  ascertained  by  deducting  the  small  and 
rough  potatoes  from  the  product  of  a given  area.  Then  in  addition  to 
this  the  potatoes  should  possess  good  shape,  viz. : an  oval  neither 
tending  to  flatness  nor  long  points  at  either  end,  with  the  eyes  set  well 
out  on  the  surface.  From  a potato  possessing  this  shape  there  is  less 
loss  in  prejiaring  for  cooking.  Much  difference  of  opinion  exists  re- 
garding the  selection  of  tubers  for  seed.  The  best  practice,  however, 
is  to  select  medium  sized,  smooth  and  uniform  potatoes,  notwithstand- 


18 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


in^  the  evidence  which  may  be  iDrodnced  to  show  that  equal  results, 
in  some  cases,  have  been  secured  from  small  sets. 


Treatment  for  Scab  and  Preparation  for  Seed. 

Potatoes  selected  for  seed  should  always  be  treated  for  scab 
whether  apparently  affected  or  not,  as  the  loarasitic  spores  may  be 
present  even  though  not  visible.  The  preventative  measures  are 
neither  laborious  or  ex]oensive,  and  a badly  infected  crop  is  practically 
unmarketable.  Either  of  the  two  following  methods  may  be  used: 

(1)  Soak  the  uncut  seed  from  one  and  a half  to  two  hours  in  a 
solution  consisting  of  one  i^ound  or  pint  of  formalin  to  thirty  gallons 
of  water;  or  (2)  Immerse  the  tubers  for  the  same  length  of  time  in  a 
solution  consisting  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  the  proportion  of  one 
ounce  to  seven  and  one-half  gallons  of  water.  The  former  treatment 
is  x>ref erred  as  it  does  not  jjreseiit  the  deadly  ijoison  ijroperties  of  the 
latter,  nor  corrode  metallic  vessels.  These  methods  of  treatment  will 
not  be  effective  in  rei3lanting  badly  infected  ground;  in  such  cases  the 
Xdace  of  planting  should  be  changed.  The  conditions  seemingly  fav- 
orable to  the  develox^ment  of  scab  are  soils  possessing  an  abundance  of 
decaying  organic  matter  with  an  excess  of  moisture  accompanied  by 
Xjroper  temperature.  Past  exx^erience  seems  to  indicate  that  heavy 
manuring  or  x^lowing  in  green  croxjs  accomx)anied  by  excess  of  moist- 
ure or  coxjious  irrigation,  tends  to  increase  scablhng. 

The  cutting  process  should  always  follow  treatment.  Though  a 
number  of  devices  have  been  invented  for  this  work,  none  answer  so 
well  as  a knife  in  the  hands  of  a skilful  operator.  When  the  tubers 
are  large  with  a moderate  number  of  eyes,  cut  one  eye  to  a piece  sx^lit- 
ting  the  seed  end.  With  a variety  having  many  eyes  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  cut  two  to  each  x^iece.  After  cutting,  if  storm  x^revents  x^hmt- 
ing  for  a number  of  days,  sx^read  the  sets  out  thin  on  a board  floor  and 
sx^rinkle  with  dry  earth  or  ashes  to  hasten  the  callousing  of  the  cuts 
and  x^i’event  decoinx^osition,  which  will  soon  follow  if  the  sets  are  left 
X)iled  or  sacked.  Under  local  conditions  where  spells  of  cold,  wet 
weather  are  likely  to  follow  early  xflanting,  uncut  seed  about  the  size* 
of  a hen’s  egg  is  safer  to  plant,  being  much  more  resistent  to  decay. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


19 


Attention  should  also  be  given  to  the  selection  of  perfectly  matnred 
seed.  In  some  localities  early  frosts  may  destroy  the  vines  before  ma- 
turity. While  the  immature  tubers  will  grow  quite  well  they  are 
much  longer  in  starting  and  making  an  appearance  above  ground. 
Potatoes  also  which  have  been  exposed  to  any  possibility  of  even  slight 
freezing  should  not  be  used  for  seed. 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL 

Deep  plowing  and  thorough  cultivation  are  essential  to  render  the 
soil  loose  and  mellow.  Eall  jalowed  land,  which  has  settled  and  be- 
come hard,  should  always  be  replowed  shortly  before  planting  time. 

PLANTING. 

The  labor  involved  in  planting  large  areas  will  justify  the  pur- 
chase and  use  of  a potato  planter;  any  one  of  the  several  kinds  on  the 
market  will  do  excellent  work.  In  general  the  drills  should  be  from 
thirty-six  to  forty-two  inches  apart  with  the  sets  twelve  inches  apart 
in  the  row.  For  small  areas  drill  rows  may  be  opened  with  a small 
plow  and  refilled  with  the  same  implement  after  planting.  The  drills 
should  not  remain  open  long  to  allow  them  to  dry  out.  After  covering 
with  the  plow  cross  harrow  to  level  the  ground;  this  is  jjarticularly 
necessary  where  the  crop  is  to  be  irrigated.  A covering  of  four  inches 
with  the  heavier  and  more  retentive  soils  is  sufficient,  but  six  inches 
may  be  needed  in  the  lighter  and  drier  ones. 

CULTIVATION. 

Harrow  lightly  at  once  as  soon  as  the  young  plants  begin  to  appear 
nbove  ground  to  destroy  weeds  and  retain  moisture.  Frequent  culti- 
vation should  follow  according  to  the  conditions ; the  drier  the  season 
the  more  frequent  the  cultivation.  More  cultivation  and  less  irriga- 
tion will  produce  crops  of  better  quality. 

IRRIGATION. 

In  this  the  time  and  amount  is  greatly  varied  by  the  local  climatic 
and  soil  conditions.  In  general  one  irrigation  can  be  made  to  suffice 
if  proper  cultivation  is  given  and  the  water  applied  about  the  time  the 


20 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


ants  come  into  bloom.  Earlier  irrigation  is  liable  to  start  too  many 
sets;  delayed  too  long  a second  growth  i^roducing  rough  potatoes  is 
likely  to  occur.  Under  the  most  extreme  conditions  two  irrigations 
may  be  necessary.  After  irrigating,  the  ground  should  be  cultivated 
lightly  to  prevent  evaporation.  The  same  method  of  irrigation  as  that 
described  for  sugar  beets  will  also  apply  to  potatoes. 

HARVESTING  AND  STORING. 

Large  areas  are  readily  harvested  with  a potato  digger  such  as  the 
Hoover.  In  storing,  the  secret  of  success  lies  in  keeping  the  potatoes 
in  a dark  storeroom  or  cellar  with  the  temperature  as  low  as  possible 
without  permitting  freezing. 


i BULLETIN  N0.4i: 

MONTANA  AGRICULTLBAL 

Experimsnt  Station 


OF  THE 

AGRiClLriRAl  COLLEGE  OF  MONIANA. 

SEOAR  BEETS. 

THE  CROP  OF  1902. 


BOZEMAN,  nONTANA,  DECEMBER,  1902. 


1902. 

The  Avant  GouFier  Publishing  Co. 
Bozeman,  Montana. 


riontana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor  1 

James  Donovan,  Attorney  General  ’ Jex-officio 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction  J 

N.  W.  McConnell 

W.  M.  Johnson 

O.  P.  Chisholm 

J.  G.  McKay 

G.  T.  Paul 

N.  B.  Holter 

J.  M.  Ea^ans \ 

Chas.  R.  Leonard 


Helena 

.....Helena 

....Billings 

.Bozeman 

Hamilton 

Dillon 

Helena 

.Missoula 
Butte 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President Bozeman 

John  M.  Robinson,  Vice  President Bozeman 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary .'...Bozeman 

Joseph  Kountz Bozeman 

E.  B.  Lamme Bozeman 


STATION  STAFF. 

Samuel  Fortier,  Ma.  E Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S Chemist 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D Botanist 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc Entomologist 

F.  B.  Linfield,  B.  S.  A Agriculturist 

R.  W.  Fisher,  B.  S Assistant  Horticulturist 

Edmund  Burke Assistant  Chemist 

H.  C.  Gardiner Manager  Poultry  Department 


Post  Office,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be 
addressed  to  the  Director,  ... 

Montana  Experiment  Station,  i 

Bozeman,  Montana. 


Notice! — The  Bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  frefir  to 
any  citizen  of  Montana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the 
Station  for  that  purpose. 


Montana  Experiment  Station 


Bulletin  No.  41  - - - - December,  i902 


SUGAR  BEETS. 

The  Crop  of  1902, 


F.  W.  TRAPHAGEN. 


Except  for  the  fact  that  very  few  of  the  cooperating  farmers 
responded  to  the  request  to  send  to  the  Station  samples  of  sugar 
beets  for  analysis,  the  results  of  the  year’s  work  are  very  satis- 
factory. 

No  general  conclusions  can  be  drawn  from  the  analysis  of 
such  a small  number  of  samples  for  the  various  localities,  though 
these  results,  so  far  as  they  go,  support  the  conclusions  of  former 
years. 

The  season  has  been  very  generally  reported  as  having  been 
very  unfavorable  to  the  growth  of  beets,  yet  the  yields,  both  in 
quantity  and  quality,  have  been  very  good. 

The  richest  lot  of  beets  that  has  yet  come  into  the  laboratory 
was  grown  by  W.  M.  Wooldridge,  Valley  count^^  Six  beets  raised 
by  Mr.  Wooldridge  averaged  22.8  per  cent  sugar  in  the  beets, 
equivalent  to  24  per  cent  sugar  in  the  juice. 

Results,  this  year  and  in  past  years,  show  that  the  manufac- 
uring  campaign  might  begin  as  early  as  the  middle  of  September, 
thus  making  a campaign  of  great  length  possible. 

Excellent  yields  of  fine  beets  have  been  obtained  this  year  with 
very  little  water,  in  some  cases  none  in  fact,  reaching  the  crop 
fro.  planting  until  harvesting.  This  would  indicate  the  possibil- 
ity of  its  use  as  a dry  land  crop,  in  places  where  water  is  not 
available. 


4 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


TABLES  OF  COMPOSITION,  YIELD  AND  VALUE. 


Laboratory  No.... 

Co-operating  Farmer. 

Locality. 

Date  Analyzed 

Vi  rietj^ 

2250 

J.  R.  Stevens 

Bridget’,  Carbon  County 

September  26 

Dippe 

2251 

P.  E.  Wedge 

Columbia  Falls,  Flafhead  County 

September  26 

Hoerning 

2252 

Ebenezer  Johnson 

Fulton,  Lewis  & 'Clarke  County 

September  26 

Vilmorin 

2255 

Theo.  Koenig 

Kalispeil,  Flathead  County 

October  17 

Hoerning 

2256 

J.  H.  Green 

Manhattan,  Gallatin  County 
McLeod,  Sweet  Grass  ('onnty 
Forsyth,  Rosebud  County 

October  17 

Strandes 

2257 

2258 

rt.  0.  (b  Andrews 

J.  J.  Quinlan 

October  1 7 
October  17 

Strandes 

J259 

^260 

Fred  Edelman 

Sheridan,  Madison  County 

October  26 

Hoeriiing 

A.  B.  Leckenby 

Union,  Union  County,  Oregon 

October  26 

Dii)pe 

2261 

J.  P.  .Jones 

Whitehall,  .Jefferson  County 

October  26 

•■^trandes 

2262 

G.  Hollenbeck 

Pioneer.  Powell  County 

Octolier  26 

Vilmorin 

2263 

J.  .J.  Quinlan 

Forsyth,  Rosebud  County 

0(*tober  26 

Vilmorin 

2264 

J.  R.  Stevens 

Bridget’,  Carbon  ('onnty 

October  26 

Dippe 

2265 

W.  M.  Wooldridge 

Hinsd.ale,  Valley  County 

October  27 

.strandes 

2266 

Isaac  Eddy 

Lothrop,  Missoula  ( ounty 

October  27 

Vilmorin 

2267 

H.  R.  Ballinger 

Red  I.iodge.  < arbon  County 

October  27 

Dip])e 

2268 

Mrs.  B.  Hauck 

Garrison,  Powell  County 

October  29 

I’innorin 

2269 

A.  L.  Halliday 

Choteaii,  Teton  County 

October  29 

Vilmorin 

2270 

A.  C.  Gifford 

Fallon,  Custer  County 

October  29 

Strandes 

2274 

C.  M.  Jjarkin* 

Bridger,  Carbon  county 

November  5 

Di])i)e 

2275 

W.  E.  Milnor 

Troy,  Flathead  County  * 

November  5 

Vilmorin 

2276 

2277 
2282 

M.  M.  Fergueon 

Jjewis  Krueger 

Experiment  Farm 

Bozeman,  Gallatin  ( ounty 
Bozeman,  Gallatin  County 
Bozeman,  Gallatin  County 

November  5 
Nov^ember  7 
November  7 

Hoerning 

2288 

.J.  B.  Dnggins 

Ekalaka,  f'nster  County 

November  7 

Dipj)e 

2284 

T.  S.  Proud 

Kalispeil,  Flathead  Countj^ 

November  29 

Strandes 

2285 

T.  8.  Proud 

Kalispeil,  “ “ 

November  29 

Dippe 

2286 

T.  S.  Proud 

Kalispeil,  ‘ “ 

November  29 

Vilmorin 

2287 

F.  E.  Wedge 

Columbia  Falls,  Flathead  County 

November  29 

Hoerning 

2288 

E.  H.  Ellinger 

Melville,  Sweet  Grass  County 

November  29 

Vilmorin 

MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


5 


TABLES  OP  COMPOSITION,  YIELD  AND  VALUE— Continued. 


Average  Weight 

Per  cent  sugar  in 

juice 

Per  cent  sugar  in 
Beets 

Per  cent  purity 

Yield  tons  per  acre 

Pounds  sugar  per 
acre 

Return  to  Farmer 
per  acre  Ohio 
Standard 

2 pounds  1 on  ice 

18.9 

17.95 

81.4 

14 

5020 

$ 90. ^^2 

2 [louiids  8 ounces 

1(5.4 

15.(5 

81.5 

14 

44(58 

79.80 

1 pound  9.5  ounces 

13.9 

13.2 

78.4 

2 iiounds  11.5  ounces 

1(5.7 

15.9 

,80 

19.5 

0201 

113.10 

14  ounces 

15.9 

15.1 

82.8 

20 

0040 

110.(50 

1 pound  10  ounces 

10 

15.2 

83.3  • 

27 

8208 

150.12 

1 iionnd  10  ounces 

20.4 

19.4 

81.2 

17.5 

(5790 

121.80 

1 iiound  3 ounces 

17 

• 10.2 

82.9 

21 

(5802 

123.90 

1 pound  7 ounces 

14.2 

13.5 

80.0 

18.3 

4954 

91.75 

13  ounces 

13.5 

12.8 

75.4 

10 

25(50 

47.(50 

1 2 ounces 

13,8 

13.1 

80.2 

11 

2882 

53.40 

1 iionnd  7 ounces 

14.4 

■ 13.7 

57.(5 

17.5 

4790 

88.55 

1 pound  4 ounces 

18 

17.1 

78.0 

14 

4788 

8(5.80 

10.3  ounces 

24 

22.8 

77.4. 

20 

9120 

101.80 

1 iionnd 

. 1(5.3 

15.5 

87.2 

17.5 

5425 

90.05 

1 pound  9 ounces 

15.7 

14.9 

85.3 

1 ])Ound  15  ounces 

14.(5 

13.9 

81.(5 

1 pound 

15 

14.25 

8(5.2 

1 iiound  4 ounces 

17 

10.15 

87 

31.75 

10255 

180.09 

9 ounces 

18.8 

17.80 

89.1 

12 

4280 

77.40 

7.5  ounces 

1(5.9 

10 

• 83.(5 

2 iiound  1 ounce 

1(5 

15.2 

84.2 

22 

0088 

122.32 

14  ounces 

18 

17.1 

80 

1 pound 

17.9 

17 

91.3 

1 pound  7 ounces 

18.(5 

17.7 

80.1 

1 iiound  7 ounces 

17.7 

1(5.8 

81.2 

14 

4704 

85.40 

1 Iiound  1 ounce 

19.0 

18.0 

83 

11 

4092 

73.70 

1 iiound  5 ounces 

17.0 

1(5.7 

82.2 

10 

5344 

90.6(5 

1 iiound 

19 

18 

81.2 

14 

5040 

91.00 

2 pounds  8 ounces  « 

15.5 

14.7 

72.4 

24.0 

7232 

132.84 

6 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


TABLES  OF  CULTURE  NOTES. 


p 

cr 

o 

E 

o 

p 

C o - () per ati  11  g F ar  nier. 

Soil 

1 

Bate 

planted 

Bate 

Harvested 

Width 

between 

rows 

2250 

J.  R.  Ste''"eiis 

Clay,  gumbo 

April  14 

September  15 

16  inches 

2251 

F.  E.  Wedge 

Sandy  loam 

May  24 

September  22 

18 

2252 

Ebenezer  Johnson 

Black  loam  . 

May  18 

September  2.8 

22 

2255 

Theo.  Koenig 

Black  sandy  loam 

May  21 

October  8 

18 

2250 

J.  H.  Green 

Black  garden  loam 

May  (> 

October  9 

16 

2257 

H.  0.  C.  Andrews 

Black  soil 

May  5 

September  26 

20 

J 

225« 

J.  J.  Quinlan 

Sandy  loam 

May  10 

September  29 

24 

i t 

2250 

Fred  Edelman 

Sandy  loam 

M*ay  12 

October  14 

12 

(1 

2200 

A.  B.  Leckenby 

Clay  loam 

April  28 

October  15 

20 

<< 

2201 

J.  P.  Jones 

Sandy  loam 

May  20 

October  16 

20 

, 2202 

G.  Hollenbeck 

Black  loam 

May  20 

October  12 

18 

H 

2208 

2204 

J.  J.  Quinlan 

J.  R.  Stevens 

Black  soil 

Clay,  gumbo 

Mav  5 

April  15 

October  15 

16 

(( 

n 

2205 

W.  M.  Wooldridge 

Sandy  loam 

May  1 

Septembei  20 

18 

n 

2200 

Isaac  Eddy 

Black  loam 

May  6 ^ 

October  21 

18 

2207 

H.  R.  Ballinger 

Sandy 

.Tune  20 

October  24 

28 

< ( 

2208 

Mrs.  B.  Hauck 

Sandy  loam 

.Tune  29 

October  22 

24 

< 1 

2209 

A.  E.  Halladay 

Sandy  loam 

May  16 

October  25 

24 

(< 

2270 

A.  C.  Gifford 

Sandy  loam 

May  18 

October  25 

20 

(( 

2274 

r.  M.  Larkin 

Sandy  loam 

May  12 

November  2 

16 

(( 

2275 

W.  .E.  Milnor 

Sandy  loam 

May  20 

October  31 

24 

(( 

2270 

1 

M.  M.  Ferguson 

Black  loam 

.Tune  2 

October  28 

36 

2277 

2282 

2288 

Lewis  Kruger 

Experiment  Farm 

J,  B.  Dnggins 

Sandy  loam 

Sandy  loam 

May  29 

November  8 

18 

( ft 

ii 

t i 

2284 

T.  S,  Proud 

Sandy  loam,  very  deep 

May  18 

November  16 

18 

n 

2285 

T.  S.  Proud 

Sandy  loam,  very  deep 

Mav  1 8 

Novetnber  15 

18 

n 

2280 

T.  S.  Proud 

Sandy  loam,  very  deep 

May  18 

November  16 

18 

2287 

F.  E.  Wedge 

Sandy  loam 

May  2;4 

November  17 

18 

2288 

E.  H.  Ellinger 

Sandy  loam 

May  5 

November  1 9 

20 

MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


7 


TABLES  OF  CULTURE  NOTES— CONTINUED. 


Irrigation. 


Frequent  and  plentitul. 

None. 

None,  no  water  from  June 
very  dry 

None,  very  little  rain. 

Three  times,  June  15,  July 
A^igust  12. 

Twice,  June  10  and  July  15. 
No  irrigation  and  no  rain. 
Twice,  in  June  and  in  July 

None. 

Every  10  days  after  July  10. 
Only  during  July. 


Cultivation. 


Plowed  10  inches  deep,  no  subsoiling. 
Thinned  June  28. 

23,  Thinned  June  11. 

Plowed  7 inches  deep. 

20,  Plowed  7 & 6 in.  deep,  cultivated  with 
garden  plow;  thinned  June  20. 
Thinned  June  16. 

Thinned  June  15. 

Plowed  8 inches  deep,  not  su’  soiled; 
thinneu  June  15. 

Plowed  9 inches,  subsoiled  4 inches, 
stand  excellent,  thinned  June  2. 
Thinned  July  10. 

Thinned  June  30,  hoed  twice  4 inches 
deep;  stand  excellent. 


Remarks. 


Season  unfavorable. 
Season  unfavorable. 
Season  unfavorable. 


Season  favorable. 

Season  unfavorable. 
Season  very  unfavorable. 
Season  favorable. 

Season  favorable. 

*Season  very  unfavorable. 
Season  very  unfavorable. 


One-half  in.  water  to  row  every 
10  days  fr’m  Jul.  5 to  Aug.  25. 
Once,  June  20. 

Four  irrigations  and  several  rain 
and  hail  storms 
Irrigated  twice. 


Thinned  July  11. 

Thinned  June  20. 

Thinned  June  20,  plowed  7 inches, 
subsoiled  7 in,;  frequent  cultivation. 
Thinned  .July  6 to  15. 


Three  times. 

Water  from  well  when  watering 
garden. 

Twice,  in  July  and  in  August. 
None,  spring  wet. 

Once,  August  6. 


Thinned  June  20. 

Early  in  July;  plowed  about  6 inches; 

good  stand. 

Thinned  July  1. 

Plowed  8 inches  deep;  thinned  July 
1;  stand  medium. 

Thinned  July  7,  July  28  and  Aug.  11. 


Season  favorable. 

Season  unfavorable. 

Season  cold,  v’ry  unf’v’ble 
Season  unfavorable. 
Season  unfavorable. 

Fair  season. 

Frost  in  June. 

Season  very  unfavorable. 
Season  very  unfavorable. 

Season  favorable. 


None. 

None. 

None. 

None. 

None. 


Thinned  in  June. 

Thinned  July  12,  plowed  8 inches; 

stand  excellent. 

Thinned  July  10. 

Thinned  July  11. 

Thinned  June  28. 

Thinned  June  20,  plowed  in  May  10 
inches  deep. 


Season  unfavorable. 
Season  unfavorable. 

Very  cold  and  backward. 
Cold  and  backward. 
Season  unfavorable. 
Season  very  unfavorable. 


♦Seed  did  not  come  up  till  July  1,  then  not  more  than  one-quarter  of  a stand. 


8 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Where  beets  have  been  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ground  after' 
they  have  ripened  they  have  shown  a marked  deterioration.  This' 
is  shown  in  the  case  of  samples  2250  and  2264,  grown  by  J.  R.  ; 
Stevens,  of  Bridger,  and  in  2258  and  2273,  grown  by  J.  J. 
Quinlan,  while  on  the  other  hand  samples  2251  and  2287  show 
the  opposite  results,  but  in  the  latter  case  the  ground  was  very 
dry  towards  the  end  of  the  season,  and  soon  after  became  covered  • 
with  snow. 

While  occasional  frosts  are  experienced  after  the  crop  is  in,  the 
sugar  beet  seems  to  be  well  adapted  to  withstand  the  severity  of<^ 
such  frosts  as  occur  during  the  growing  season  in  Montana. 

The  Continental  Sugar  Company,  at  Fremont,  Ohio,  pays 
$4.50  a ton  for  beets  testing  12  per  cent  sugar  and  of  a purity  of 
80  degrees.  For  each  per  cent  of  sugar  above  12  in  the  beet  an 
additional  3313  cents  is  paid.  I have  calculated,  on  this  basis,  the^ 
return  our  Montana  farmers  would  receive  from  each  acre  of  sugar  ■ 
beets  planted,  provided  that  the  results  obtained  experimentally 
were  also  obtained  on  a larger  scale.  These  figures  are  given  in  " 
the  tables.  . 

Some  of  the*  beets  have  a purity  of  less  than  80  per  cent,  and 
the  farmer  would  not  receive  for  these  as  much  as  the  table  shows.  . 
I do  not  know  just  how  much  is  deducted  for  low  purity,  so  have 
been  unable  to  substract  in  the  cases  mentioned. 

No  averages  are  attempted  this  year  because  of  the  small  'c 
number  of  samples  analyzed. 


BULLETIN  NO.  42. 


MONTANA 

AGRICULTURAL 

EXPERIMENT  STATION 

- OF  " 

THE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


MONTANA. 


THE  CODLING  MOTH. 


BOZEMAN,  MONTANA,  DECEMBER,  1902. 


BOZEMAN  CHRONICLE--1903 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 


EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor,  | 

James  Donovan,  Attorney-General,  } Ex-Offieio 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  J 

J.  M.  Evans 

C.  R.  Leonard 

N.  W.  McConnell 

W.  M.  Johnston i. 

O.  P.  Chisholm 

J.  G.  McKay 

G.  T.  Paul 

N.  B.  Holter 


Helena 

Missoula 

Butte 

Helena 

....Billings 

.Bozeman 

Hamilton 

Dillon 

Helena 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President... Bozeman 

John  M.  Robinson,  Vice-President Bozeman 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary Bozeman 

Joseph  Kountz Bozeman 

E.  B,  Lamme Bozeman 


STATION  STAFF. 

S.  Fortier,  Ma.  E Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S Chemist 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D Botanist 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc Entomologist 

F.  B.  Linfield,  B.  S.  A Agriculturist 

R.  W.  Fisher,  B.  S Assistant  Horticulturist 

Edmund  Burke Assistant  Chemist 


Post  Office,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be 
addressed  to  the  Director, 

Montana  Experiment  Station, 

Bozeman,  Mont. 


NOTICE — The  bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to 
any  citizen  of  Montana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the 
Station  for  that  purpose. 


Montana  Experiment  Station 


Bulletin  No.  42.  = = = = December,  1902. 


THE  CODLING  MOTH. 


Carpocapsa  ponionelJa  Linn. 

R.  A.  COOLEY. 

Montana  now  has  not  far  from  900,000  apple  trees  growing 
within  her  borders.  Only  about  one-third  of  these  have  yet  come 
into  bearing  and  few,  if  any,  have  produced  a maximum  crop  of 
fruit.  Notwithstanding  the  newness  of  the  industry",  the  produc- 
tion of  fruit  is  already  looked  upon  as  one  of  our  main  branches  of 
agriculture.  There  exists  complete  confidence  in  its  future,  and  its 
development  is  being  pushed  forward  with  enthusiasm. 

The  fruit  growers  have  wisely  been  looking  into  the  future,  and 
have  recognized  in  the  codling  moth  a serious  menace  to  their  or- 
chards. Other  insects  also  have  been  recognized  as  dangerous,  and 
as  a means  of  protection  against  all,  a State  Board  ofHorticulture 
has  been  created,  the  duty  of  the  members  of  which  is  to  prescribe 
regulations  for  inspection  and  disinfection  of  fruits  and  nursery 
stock,  and  otherwise  afford  protection. 

Montana’s  problem  with  this  insect  is,  in  some  particulars,  a 
peculiar  one.  It  has  not  yet  gained  a footing  in  our  commercial 
orchards,  and  is  present  in  destructive  numbers  in  only  a very  few 
places,  the  most  important  of  which  is  Missoula  which  lies  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  Bitter  Root  valley. 

So  far  as  the  commercial  orchards  are  concerned,  the  codling 
moth  is  not  in  Montana.  The  problem,  then,  is  the  one  of  taking 
the  greatest  possible  advantage  of  the  fortunate  conditions.  We 


4 


THE  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


believe  that  vigilanee  we  can  prevent  the  insect  from  getting  in- 
to full  possession  of  the  orchards,  as  it  has  done  in  many  parts  of 
the  country  where  it  is  necessary  to  use  every  means  possible  in 
order  to  get  a remunerative  crop  of  fruit.  It  is  hoped  that  instead 
of  allowing  the  moth  to  firmly  establish  itself  and  then  trying  to 
repress  it,  we  ma^^  be  able  to  prevent  it  from  gaining  a foothold. 

The  present  paper  aims  only  to  discuss  the  moth  from  Mon- 
tana’s standpoint.  We  believe  that  every 'person  interested  in  the 
production  of  Alontana’s  principal  fruit,  the  apple,  should  have 
an  intimate  knowledge  of  this  insect  which  is  the  worst  pest  of  the 
apple.  Many  are  not  familiar  enough  with  the  insect  to  know  how 
serious  a pest  it  is,  and  what  it  means  to  allow  it  to  get  into  the 
orchard. 

It  is  hoped  in  a future  publication  to  give  a more  elaborate  ac- 
count of  this  important  pest. 

THE  STATUS  IN  HONTANA. 

The  only  cases  of  infestation  by  the  codling  moth  in  Alontana, 
known  to  the  writer,  are  here  discussed. 

As  is  now  well  known  in  the  state,  the  moth  was  found  to  be 
doing  considerable  damage  at  Missoula  in  the  summer  of  1901. 
The  situation  was  indeed  quite  serious,  but  since  the  season’s  work 
of  the  Experiment  Station  and  Board  of  Horticulture,  in  co-opera- 
tion, the  cause  for  alarm  has  been  ver^^  largely  removed.  Mr. 
Brandegee  and  the  writer  took  a buggy  drive  up  the  Bitter  Root 
valley  from  Alissoula  to  Hamilton  and  return,  for  the  express  pur- 
pose of  satisfying  ourselves  as  to  whether  or  not  the  moth  is  in  the 
valley.  It  is  very  gratifying  to  report  that  we  were  unable  to  find 
a single  example  of  the  moth  outside  of  Missoula. 

Mr.  H.  C.  B.  Colville,  while  acting  as  inspector  in  the  summer 
of  1899,  located  the  insect  at  Thompson  Falls.  The  writer  is  not 
informed  as  to  the  condition  of  this  colony  at  the  present  time. 

Mr.  Brandegee  reports  that  the  pest  is  well  established  in  the 
home  yards  in  some  parts  of  the  city  of  Helena.  It  h^is  been  there 
a number  of  3'ears  to  his  knowledge,  and  is  very  destructive.  He 
states  that  fullv  95  per  cent  of  the  fruit  in  entire  orchards  in  the 
residential  districts  was  taken  in  1902,  but  that  there  was  onh' 
about  one-half  a full  crop. 


Bulletin  42. 


THE  CODLING  MOTH. 


5 


In  August,  1900,  Mr.  Fred  Whiteside  of  Kalispell  sent 
wormy  apples  to  the  Station  asking  to  be  informed  whether  or 
not  they  were  affected  by  this  insect.  Upon  being  informed  that  he 
actually  had  the  moth  in  his  orchard,  he  at  once  picked  and  de- 
stroyed all  the  fruit  from  the  single  tree  known  to  be  infected,  and 
all  those  near  by.  Since  that  time  no  more  moths  have  been  seen 
in  his  orchard. 

During  the  summer  of  1902,  Mr.  O.  C.  Estey,  of  Bigfork,  in- 
spector for  the  district,  found  it  in  several  localities  in  and  near 
Kalispell.  On  August  26th  he  found  about  one-hundred  wormy 
apples  in  one  orchard.  In  two  other  orchards  he  found  one  and 
three  trees  respectively  that  were  affected.  We  are  inclined  to  be- 
lieve the  situation  at  Kalispell  to  be  serious.  Left  to  itself,  the 
moth  would  sooner  or  later  spead  to  the  surrounding  country, 

ARE  ANY  PARTS  OF  MONTANA  IMMUNE? 

Many  individuals  have  believed  that  the  climatic  conditions  of 
Montana  would  prevent  this  insect  from  ever  becoming  a serious 
pest.  Others  have  felt  that  the  isolation  of  their  orchards  would 
make  them  immune.  We  believe  that  the  moth  is  capable  of  be- 
coming more  or  less  destructive  in  an3^  climate  that  will  permit 
the  profitable  production  of  apples.  This  opinion  is  amply  borne 
out  by  the  experience  of  other  states.  Moreover,  the  fact  that  the 
moth  has  maintained  itself  so  well  in  Missotila  and  Helena  con- 
futes any  theory  of  immunity  for  places  of  similar  climate. 

It  is  true  that  widely  isolated  orchards  may  be  kept  free  for  a 
considerable  time,  perhaps  indefinitely,  if  precautions  are  taken 
against  bringing  fruit  boxes  or  other  suspected  material  to  the 
orchard. 

THE  POSSIBLE  DESTRUCTIVENESS  OF  THE  HOTH. 

It  is  a well  established  fact  that  an  insect  pest  is  more  abund- 
ant and  destructive  under  climatic  conditions  favorable  to  its  life 
and  development,  than  outside  of  the  climatic  conditions  to  which 
it  is  adapted.  The  codling  moth  is  no  exception. 

The  United  States  has  commonly  been  divided  into  five  life 
zones  as  follows:  boreal,  transitional,  upper  sonoran,  lower  son- 
oran,  and  tropical.  These  zones  are  of  irregular  and  broken  out- 
line, and  extend  across  the  continent  from  ocean  to  ocean.  Three 


G 


THE  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


of  them  cross  Montana;  the  boreal,  which  includes  the  mountain 
tops;  the  transitional,  which  roughly  speaking  includes  the  agri- 
cultural valleys  of  the  state,  except  those  in  the  southeast  corner, 
the  latter  being  included  in  the  upper  sonoran;  and  the  upper  son- 
oran,  which  embraces  the  southeast  corner  as  far  north  as  the 
valley  of  the  Yellowstone  river,  and  west  to  an  indefinite  line  in 
the  vicinity  of  Big  Timber. 

No  apples  are  grown  in  the  boreal  zone  in  Montana,  and  the 
moth  is  not  found  there.  It  follows,  then,  that  all  the  apples 
grown  in  the  state,  except  in  the  southern  part,  which  at  present 
are  few,  are  in  the  transitional  zone. 

Without  going  into  the  details  we  may  sum  up  the  results  ob- 
tained by  various  investigators  in  other  states  as  follows:  While 
the  insect  is  able  to  maintain  itself,  its  injuries  vary  in  different 
3^ears,  and  it  is  always  less  destructive  than  in  the  next  warmer 
zone,  the  upper  austral. 

Professor  Aldrich  in  Idaho  and  Professor  Piper  in  Washing- 
ton, after  careful  and  comprehensive  investigations,  report  that 
the  amount  of  destruction  varies  from  about  5 i)er  cent,  up  to 
about  25  per  cent.;  on  the  other  hand  Professor  Gillette  of  Colorado 
reports  that  at  Fort  Collins,  which  is  in  the  same  zone,  from  35 
per  cent,  to  70  per  cent,  is  taken,  and  Professor  Cordley  has  found 
that  in  a narrow  strip  of  the  transitional  zone,  near  the  coast  in 
Oregon,  the  moth  is  also  more  injurious. 

Under  conditions  existing  in  Montana  it  has  been  impossible 
to  gather  data  of  much  value  as  bearing  on  the  percentage  of  de- 
struction by  the  moth.  In  the  first  place  we  were  unable  to  go  into 
large  orchards  and  count  the  affected  and  clean  apples  as  the^^ 
were  picked  from  the  trees,  since  the  onh'  infested  trees  were  in  the 
home  orchards  of  Missoula  and  vicinity.  In  the  second  place,  such 
records,  even  if  carefully  kept,  do  not  tell  the  whole  story,  since  the 
effect  of  the  first  brood  of  larvae  on  some  winter  varieties,  and  of 
course  on  summer  varieties,  is  to  cause  the  apple  to  drop.  They 
wither  and  disaj3pear  before  the  harvest  and  are  therefore  not 
taken  into  reckoning  if  the  comparison  be  made  alone  on  the 
wormy  and  clean  fruit  at  the  time  of  harvesting. 

We  undertook  to  keep  an  accurate  record  of  the  wormy  and 
clean  fruit  in  the  cage  at  Missoula,  (described  later  in  this  paper) 
and  reached  the  following  results  : 


Bulletin  42. 


THE  CODLING  MOTH. 


r 


When  the  first  brood  of  larvae  was  eoming  out  of  the  fruit  we 
eounted  323  apples  on  the  tree  and  on  the  ground,  and  of  these  50 
were  wormy.  It  is  very  probable  that  a few  more  were  worm^' 
that  did  not  appear  so  at  that  time. 

On  Oetober  5th,  we  again  eounted  the  fruit  on  the  tree  and  on 
the  ground,  and  found  144  clean  and  115  wormy.  All  the  fruit 
affected  by  the  first  brood  of  larvae  dropped  to  the  ground  and 
disappeard.  If  only  50  were  taken  by  the  first  brood,  273  were 
left.  There  were  259  sound  and  wormy  apples  on  and  under  the 
tree  on  October  5th.  This  number  subtracted  from  273  leaves  14 
apples  which  were  either  taken  by  the  first  brood  or  dropped  on  ac- 
count of  failure  to  mature.  Because  of  the  failure  to  know  what  be- 
came of  the  14,  we  are  defeated  in  our  attempt  to  get  an  accurate 
record  of  the  percentage  of  destruction.  It  would  perhaps  have  been 
possible  if  we  could  have  put  in  an  immense  amount  of  time  and 
been  in  the  cage  every  day.  It  is  obvious  that  no  one  could  have 
prepared  an  accurate  statement  the  percentage  of  loss  by  a 
count  at  the  time  of  harvest  alone,  as  the  apples  destrot^d  by  the 
first  brood  had  disappeared  and  only  259  apples  were  to  be  found 
as  against  323.  If  we  premise  that  the  14  apples  were  sound  we 
can  figure  that  51  per  cent,  was  taken  by  the  moth.  The  least 
percentage  of  destruction  that  we  can  calculate  therefore  is  51. 

There  are  other  facts  that  tend  to  lessen  the  value  of  estimates 
of  loss.  Unless  the  best  of  judgment  is  used  in  selecting  from  an 
orchard,  representative  trees  from  which  to  count  the  fruit,  the 
deductions  made  from  the  counts  of  a few  trees  are  misleading. 
The  actual  number  of  apples  taken  by  the  insects  in  years  of  full 
crop  and  in  years  of  short  crop,  probably  does  not  vary  much,  yet 
in  years  of  scarcity  the  loss  is  felt  much  more  keenly. 

The  crop  in  Missoula  this  season  was  probably  a full  one. 

With  some  misgivings  we  venture  to  state  that  the  loss  to 
whole  orchards  in  the  worst  infested  districts  has  been  not  far  from 
45  per  cent.  This  is  based  on  many  extended  examinations  in  the 
open  as  well  as  on  the  cage  experiment.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  insects  in  the  cage  were  protected  against  birds,  and  to 
some  extent  against  insect  enemies. 

In  response  to  a request  for  information  of  Mr.  James  O.  Read 
and  Mr.  C.  M.  Allen,  as  to  the  amount  of  loss  at  Missoula  in  the 


8 


THE  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


summer  of  1901,  we  were  informed  that  60  per  cent,  was  destroyed, 
but  this  probabH  applies  to  a few  of  the  worst  infested  or- 
chards. Enough  is  known  to  convince  us  that  the  situation  is 
serious. 

We  consider  birds  to  be  great  destroyers  of  these  insects,  since 
we  have  found  ver\'  many  cocoons  from  which  they  have  removed 
the  larvae  or  pupae.  Tlierefore  in  the  open  orchards  of  the  state 
where  birds  would  be  less  disturbed,  and  where,  also,  there  could  be 
fewer  places  in  which  the  larvae  might  construct  their  cocoons,  than 
in  the  city  Amrds  where  fences  and  other  material  furnish  suitable 
protection,  the  loss  would  be  much  less,  probably  seldom,  if  ever, 
above  35  per  cent,  for  whole  orchards. 

Along  the  valley  of  the  Yellowstone  river  from  Big  Timber  to 
the  eastern  boundary  of  the  state,  and  south  of  this  line,  the  moth 
could  be  very  injurious.  In  the  same  zone,  the  upper  sonoran,  in 
the  states  to  the  west  of  Montana,  under  normal  conditions,  as 
high  as  100  per  cent  of  the  apples  are  damaged  where  no  protect- 
ive measures  are  employed.  Mr.  C.  B.  Simpson  has  recorded*  hav- 
ing found  ten  holes  in  a single  apple,  and  the  remains  of  twenty- 
three  eggs  on  one  apple  and  seventeen  .on  another  from  orchards 
with  but  a little  fruit.  We  ma}'  take  these  statements  as  indicat- 
ing the  possibilities  of  injury  in  the  same  zone  in  our  state. 

HOW  THE  CODLING  MOTH  SPREADS. 

Undoubtedly  the  most  co.mmon  means  of  spread  of  the  moth 
over  long  distances  is  in  fruit  packages.  It  is  not  strange  that  the 
insect  has  extended  Itself  to  almost  eveiw  fruit  growing  region  of 
the  world,  for  when  we  analize  horticultural  and  commercial 
practices,  we  find  a chain  of  conditions  almost  perfectW  adapted 
to  its  spread. 

Along  with  the  development  of  a new  agricultural  country, 
apple  growing  naturally  follows.  Young  trees  are  brought  in, 
planted,  and  cared  for  until  they  begin  to  produce  fruit.  In  the 
meantime  the  public  demands  apples,  and  the  merchant  supplies 
them,  making  use  of  the  surplus  crops  of  other  regions.  With  the 
imported  apples  are  brought  the  insects  which  were  in  fruit  as 
larvae  when  it  was  picked  from  the  trees.  These  larvae  on  reach- 


*Hulletin  1,0,  New  Series,  Div.  of  Eutomolosy,  E.  S,  Department  of  .Agriculture,  1902. 


Bulletin  42. 


THE  CODLING  MOTH. 


9 


ing  full  growth  crawl  out  of  the  fruit,  and  go  in  quest  of  a place 
to  their  liking  in  which  to  spin  the  cocoons  which  they  occupy  dur- 
ing the  helpless  pupa  stage.  The  desired  plaee  is  often  found  in  an 
angle  of  the  box  or  barrel,  or  under  a cleat  or  beneath  a board 
that  has  sprung  in  the  freight  car.  From  these  points  they  may  get 
to  the  orehard  in  various  ways.  The  paekages  may  be  stored  in 
the  cellar  for  the  winter,  or  until  they  are  distributed,  and  the 
moths  developing  in  the  spring  fly  out  of  the  open  windows  and 
doors  and  seek  the  fruit  trees.  Empty  fruit  packages  are  often 
thrown  out  behind  back  buildings,  sometimes  elose  by  fruit  trees. 
The  writer  onee  found  an^apple  box  in  a back  yard  in  Bozeman, 
and  on  pieking  it  up  found  a number  of  cocoons  of  the  codling 
moth  in  the  corners.  Within  thirty  feet  was  a small  orehard  of 
apple  trees.  The  chanees  were  favorable  for  the  moths  to  colonize 
in  the  orchard. 

On  leaving  the  fruit  the  larva  often  forms  its  cocoon  in  some 
material  entirely  separate  from  the  fruit  package.  The  writer  has 
found  the  cocOons  by  the  hundreds  in  freight  cars  recently  unload- 
ed of  fruit.  We  are  informed  by  Mr.  Estey  of  Bigfork,  that  the 
heart  of  the  main  colony  of  the  moth  in  Kalispell  is  within  100 
yards  of  the  side  track  of  the  Great  Northern  railroad.  It  is  very 
probable  that  this  colony  was  started  from  a car  on  the  traek. 
This  car  might  have  been  unloaded  of  its  fruit  in  almost  any  state  in 
the  country  and  yet  have  been  the  source  of  infection  at  Kalispell  for 
the  moths  would  leave  the  car  wherever  it  might  be  when  warm 
weather  had  completed  their  development,  and  meantime  the  car 
may  have  been  transferred  hundreds  of  miles.  In  the  commission 
houses  of  our  eities,  as  well  as  in  the  warehouses  of  our  grocer^" 
stores,  apple  boxes  are  often  stacked  up  parallel  with  many  other 
kinds  of  produce  sueh  as  boxed  canned  goods,  packages  of  vege- 
tables, melons,  etc.  The  larvae  may,  and  doubtless  do,  go  to  these 
other  paekages  to  pupate. 

The  practice  of  buying  empty  fruit  boxes  of  the  merchants  in 
town  and  taking  them  to  the  orchards  to  lie  refilled  is  a partieu- 
larly  dangerous  one,  since  the  insects  if  present,  are  taken  direct  to 
the  spot  where  they  are  most  to  be  feared. 

The  codling  moth  is  not  distributed  on  nursery  stock  unless  it 
be  through  mere  accident. 


10 


THE  AIOXTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


From  the  foregoing  it  naturally  follows  that  the  centers 
of  population  are  the  first  places  to  contract  this  pest.  These 
towns  then  become  centers  of  distribution  for  the  surround- 
ing country.  Being  provided  with  wings  the  moths  can  spread 
by  flight,  but  it  is  probable  that  by  this  means  the3"  do  not  travel 
far. 

One  moth  of  either  sex  is  incapable  of  starting  a colony,  but 
those  in  one  fruit  box  may  be  sufficient  since  a box  often  con- 
tains a score  or  more  cocoons. 

WHAT  BESIDES  THE  APPLE  DOES  THE  ITOTH  ATTACK? 

It  is  well  known  that  the  apple  is  the  principal  fruit  injured 
by  the  codling  moth.  Pears  are  affected,  but  to  less  extent.  Crab- 
apples,  quinces,  wild  haws,  stone  fruits,  rose  hips,  and  the  screw 
bean,  {StroinbocarpR  monocca)  have  also  been  reported  b3"  various 
authors,  but  Air.  Simpson  in  his  paper,  previous^  mentioned, 
states  that  upon  investigation  it  was  found  that  in  every  case  of 
reported  attack  upon  stone  fruits,  the  work  had  been  found  to  be 
that  of  the  peach  twig  borer.  Air.  Simpson  also  examined  a large 
number  of  quinces  and  roses  without  finding  a single  case  of 
infestation.  Notwithstanding  these  facts  it  seems  possible  that 
the  codling  moth  might  lay  its  eggs  on  some  other  of  the  rosa- 
ceoiis  fruits  if  unable  to  find  any  of  its  favorites  and  might  possi- 
bh"  develop  to  maturity".  The  writer  hopes  to  be  able  to  give  some 
definite  information  on  this  point  in  a future  paper. 

ANOTHER  INSECT  DOING  SIMILAR  WORK. 

On  August  28th,  while  on  the  trip  up  the  valley  of  the  Bitter 
Root,  in  company  with  Air.  Brandegee,  as  previously  mentioned, 
the  writer  found  a single  apple  in  a poorly  kept  orchard  about  one 
mile  north  of  Lo  Lo,  which  upon  first  examination  seemed  to  be, 
be\"ond  question,  affected  b}"  the  codling  moth.  The  apple  Avas  a 
yellow  transparent  and  showed  on  its  side  the  characteristic  ap- 
pearance of  the  entrance  opening  of  the  codling  moth.  Though 
the  apple  was  examined  closeH  when  picked,  there  was  not  the 
slightest  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  writer  that  the  work  was  that 
of  the  “apple  worm.”  On  cutting  open  the  apple  later,  the  ap- 
pearance was  entireh^  different  from  that  expected.  The  larva  had 


Bulletin  42. 


THE  CODLING  MOTH. 


11 


left  but  had  made  a fine  caliber  burrow  which  was  very  long  and 
tortuous  and  did  not  reach  the  core.  It  can  be  said  with  almost 
certainty  that  the  work  was  not  that  of  the  codling  moth. 

DISCRIPTIONS  AND  LIFE=HISTORY. 

The  larva  having  completed  its  growth  in  the  fall  of  the  year, 
leaves  the  fruit  and  goes  in  search  of  a place  in  which  to  spin  a 
cocoon  about  itself.  By  searching  in  infested  orchards  about  the 
trunks  of  trees  that  bore  fruit  the  previous  season,  in  the  crotches 
and  under  scales  of  bark,  the  cocoons  may  be  found.  To  some  ex- 
tent, they  conform  to  the  shape  of  the  crack  or  crevice  in  which 
they  are  placed,  being  often  much  flattened. 

With  their  mandibles  the  larvae  digs  off  pieces  of  bark,  thereby 
hollowing  out  the  cavity  and  using  in  the  cocoon  the  bits  of  bark 
together  with  the  threads  they  spin  from  the  body.  Thus  the  co- 
coon is  made  to  conform  in  color  to  its  surroundings  which  is 
doubtless  some  protection  against  natural  enemies.  Many  co- 
coons are  made  in  objects  entirely  foreign  to  the  fruit  trees,  as  in 
fences,  old  rubbish,  or  any  other  material  near  at  hand  suit- 
able for  their  purpose.  They  have  been  known  also  to  enter  the 
soil  to  pupate.  Some  of  the  men  employed  to  scrape  the  trees 
at  Missoula  in  the  spring  of  1902,  reported  that  they  had  found 
cocoons  on  the  trunks  of  poplar  trees  near  the  apple  trees.  While 
there  is  chance  for  mistaken  identity  of  the  insect  in  this  case, 
there  is  no  reason  why  the  report  may  not  be  true. 

In  the  cocoon  the  insect  passes  the  winter  as  a larva,  changing 
to  a pupa  with  the  warm  weather  of  the  following  spring. 

THE  PUPA. 

The  pupa  is  brownish  in  color,  is  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch 
in  length  and  has  no  appendages.  After  two  or  three  weeks, 
when  the  insect  is  ready  to  emerge  as  a moth,  it  wriggles  part 
way  out  of  the  cocoon  and  splits  on  the  back.  The  moth  crawls 
out  leaving  the  empty  pupa  skin  still  protruding  from  the  cocoon. 

THE  MOTH. 

The  moth  is  a beautiful  little  insect  with  the  fore  wings  mark- 
ed with  many  gray  and  brown  cross  lines.  Dark  brown  spots  and 
streaks  of  orange  or  gold  occur  on  the  posterior  end  of  the  wings. 
The  hind  legs  are  grayish  brown.  Man^^  of  the  moths  caught  in 


12 


THE  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


the  orchard  are  very  badly  rubbed  and  do  not  have  the  markings 
here  mentioned.  There  are  other  species,  that,  to  one  unfamiliar 
with  insects,  might  be  mistaken  for  it. 

THE  EGG. 

The  egg  is  not  far  from  hemispherical  in  general  shape  but  has 
the  edges  flattened  out.  When  examined  from  above  or  obliquely 
it  seems  much  flattened,  and  appears  hemispherical  only  when 
.seen  in  profile.  It  is  milk  white  in  color. 

EGG  LAYING. 

The  moths  from  the  winter  cocoons  deposit  the  eggs  which 
produce  the  first  brood  of  larvae.  The  writer’s  observations  agree 
with  those  of  other  persons  who  state  that  the  eggs  are  laid  both 
on  the  leaves  and  on  the  fruit.  Throughout  the  season  more  eggs 
were  found  on  the  fruit  than  on  the  leaves. 

While  in  Missoula,  on  October  4th,  the  writer  was  fortunate 
enough  to  see  a moth  deposit  an  egg  on  an  apple.  This  occurred 
at  5:40  p.  m.,  the  sun  being  slighth^  above  the  horizon  and  shining 
brightly  on  the  town.  Within  fifteen  minutes  after  seeing  the  egg- 
deposited,  a thermometer  was  found  and  read  at  68  degrees  F. 

The  writer  was  approaching  close  to  the  outer  and  lower 
branches  of  an  apple  tree  and  saw  a codling  moth  fl^dng  about 
the  leaves  and  fruit  in  a very  purposeful  manner.  An  apple  was 
selected  and  apparently  without  any  regard  for  position  on  the 
fruit  she  stopped  and  arched  the  abdomen  down,  bringing  the  ovi- 
positor against  the  skin.  These  steps  were  distinctW  seen,  but  at 
this  point  the  moth  took  fright  and  flew  away,  going  one-third 
the  way  around  the  tree,  settling  down  and  secreting  herself  in  a 
slightly  curved  leaf.  In  about  one  minute  she  started  out  again, 
of  her  own  accord,  resuming  her  purposeful  search.  She  lit  upon 
an  apple  and  at  once  arose  again,  fl^dng  higher  in  the  tree,  still 
searching.  As  she  approached  an  apple  with  the  calyx  end  turned 
toward  her,  she  lit  upon  it,  immediateh^  turned  one-quarter  way 
round,  and  backed  down  into  the  depression  around  the  calyx  till 
the  extremities  of  the  wings  touched  the  opposite  side.  She  re- 
mained motionless  for  about  thirt^^  seconds,  and  flew  away  to  an- 
other part  of  the  tree  and  continued  the  search.  The  writer 
climbed  into  the  tree,  picked  the  apple  and  found  the  freshly  laid 


Bulletin  42. 


THE  CODLING  MOTH. 


13 


egg  in  precisely  the  spot  expected.  It  was  about  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  from  the  calyx.  The  apple  bearing  this  egg  was  brought  to 
Bozeman,  and  lay  on  the  writer’s  desk  until  the  morning  of  the 
16th  of  October,  when  the  egg  had  hatched  and  the  young  larva 
was  found  crawling  over  the  surface  of  the  apple. 

Many  observers  have  stated  that  the  eggs  are  laid  at  night 
time.  We  have  made  no  observations  on  the  point  except  the  one 
above  recorded.  In  view  of  what  had  been  written  we  were  sur- 
prised to  find  the  moth  laying  so  early  in  the  evening.  The  sun  had 
just  left  the  top  branches  of  the  tree. 

One  egg  or  many  may  be  laid  on  an  apple.  As  we  have  alreadt" 
stated  Mr.  Simpson  has  found  as  high  as  23  ’eggs  on  one  fruit. 

DURATION  OF  EGG  STAGE. 

Direct  observations  of  various  writers  have  brought  out  the 
fact  that  the  duration  of  the  egg  stage  varies  with  the  temperature 
and  is  on  an  average  about  seven  or  eight  days.  They  have  been 
known  to  hatch  as  quickly  as  three  days.  The  single  egg  discussed 
by  the  writer,  hatched  in  practicality  eleven  days;  but  the  con- 
ditions were  not  normal  since  the  egg  was  kept  in  doors. 

THE  LARVA. 

The  newly  hatched  larva  is  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch 
long,  whitish  in  color,  with  the  head,  a shield  just  behind  it  and  a 
shield  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  bod3L  black.  Later  in  its  life,  the 
parts  that  were  first  black,  become  brownish. 

The  young  larva  after  a short  period  on  the  surface  of  the  apple, 
begins  to  bore  into  the  flesh.  The  greater  part  go  in  at  the  calyx 
end,  but  many  enter  at  the  point  where  two  apples  touch  or  where 
a leaf  is  in  contact  with  an  apple.  Others  go  in  at  the  stem  end,  or 
on  the  exposed  surface. 

Judging  from  observations  in  the  states  to  the  west  of  Mon- 
tana, the  larval  stage  in  Montana  would  be  about  24  da\ys.  The 
writer  has  made  no  complete  observations  on  this  point,  but  can 
state  definitely  that  it  is  less  than  four  weeks. 

The  last  published  records  of  Mr.  Simpson  showed  that  an 
average  of  83  per  cent,  of  the  first  brood  go  into  the  fruit  from  the 
calyx  end.  From  one  counting  at  Missoula  in  1902,  the  writer 
found  90  per  cent,  to  enter  at  this  point. 


14 


THE  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


The  course  of  the  larva  in  the  fruit  is  more  or  less  lamiliar  ta 
all.  It  bores  direct  to  the  core  and  feeds  there  on  the  seeds  and 
flesh,  making  an  irregular  cavity  which  sometimes  extends  some 
distance  from  the  core.  The  filthy  frass  is  cast  out  of  the  opening 
on  the  surface,  and  remains  there,  matted  together  by  the  silken 
threads,  until  the  larva  piishes  it  off  in  leaving  the  fruit. 

The  larvae  of  the  first  brood,  as  well  as  those  of  the  second, 
spin  cocoons  in  which  to  pupate.  The  cocoons  constructed  by  the 
first  brood  larvae  are  said  to  be  thinner  and  less  substantial  than 
those  in  which  the  larvae  pass  the  winter.  The  moths  produced 
from  the  first  brood  larvae  deposit  the  eggs  for  the  second  brood. 

THE  OUT=OF=DOOR  CAGE  AT  M1S50ULA. 

Realizing  that  a knowledge  of  the  life-history  and  habits  of 
this  insect  is  basic  to  all  rational  measures  against  it,  whether 
remedial  or  preventive,  an  attempt  was  made  to  gather  all  the  in- 
formation possible  along  these  lines.  The  information  gained  thus 
far,  while  of  considerable  value,  is  in  nowise  complete.  We  hope  to 
continue  the  studies  as  long  as  results  of  economic  value  are  pro- 
duced. 

For  the  purpose  of  affording  an  opportunity  for  study  of  the 
habits  of  the  moth  under  normal  conditions  in  Alissoula  a cage  was 
made  enclosing  an  entire  tree.  This  cage  is  twelve  feet  square 
and  twelve  feet  high,  and  is  constructed  of  medium  quality  of 
lumber  and  wire  mosquito  netting.  Along  the  square  from  corner 
to  corner  a wide  board  was  settled  into  the  earth  with  the  top 
edge  exposed  above  the  surface,  to  which  is  fastened  the  netting. 
The  door  shuts  against  packing  and  is  held  close  b\" buttons.  Out- 
side the  cage  is  a thirteen  stranded  barbed-wire  fence  which  is 
angled  at  the  top  making  it  fairly  proof  against  boys.  The  door 
and  gate  through  the  wire  fence  are  kept  locked. 

Repeated  comparison  of  the  temperature  inside  and  outside  the 
cage  failed  to  show  any  constant  difference. 

The  details  of  the  experiment  and  the  results  are  mingled  with 
the  discussions  that  follow. 

DISCUSSION  ON  THE  NUMBER  OF  BROODS,  ETC. 

On  May  31st,  eighteen  cocoons  and  two  moths  were  placed  in 
the  cage  at  Missoula.  The  cocoons  for  this  purpose  were  secured 


Bulletin  42. 


THE  CODJJNG  MOTH. 


15 


from  Professor  A.  B.  Cordle}^  who  kindly  arranged  to  have  his 
students  collect  them  for  us.  We  are  aware  that  there  is  a possi- 
bility that  the  results  might  be  considered  less  reliable  than  if  the 
insects  had  been  secured  locally.  However,  it  was  planned  to  con- 
tinue the  experiment  for  a number  of  years  and  we  believe  that  in 
the  future  the  results  will  be  reliable. 

Moreover  the  closest  examination  failed  to  reveal  any  differ- 
ence in  forwardness  of  development  inside  and  outside  the  cage. 
In  all  probabilities  the  insects  placed  in  the  cage  lay  dormant  un- 
til those  outside  began  to  develop,  and  developed  parallel  with 
them. 

Missoula  is  222  miles  west  of  Bozeman  on  the  line  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  railroad,  and  on  account  of  the  distance,  trips  to 
the  cage  were  not  ver^^  frequent,  but  by  carefully  timing  the  visits 
and  by  use  of  local  assistance  much  information  was  obtained. 

On  June  18th  one  egg  was  found  in  the  cage  and  a number 
more  on  various  trees  outside.  Many  of  the  moths  had  come  out, 
but  not  all. 

On  July  10th,  the  occasion  of  the  third  visit,  all  the  moths  had 
emerged  and  three  young  larvae  were  found  just  beneath  the  skins 
of  the  apples.  Eggs  were  fairly  common.  A few  very  badly  rubbed 
moths  were  found,  which,  though  of  the  correct  size  for  the  codling 
moth,  may  have  been  some  other  species.  The  insects  were  also 
found  plentifully  outside  of  the  cage,  either  in  the  egg  stage  or 
having  been  in  the  fruit  a few  days. 

On  August  8th,  9th,  and  10th,  the  larvae  were  coming  out  of 
the  fruit.  Some  had  evidently  coriie  out  a few  days  earlier  and 
some  of  what  appeared  to  be  the  first  brood  were  still  in  the  ap- 
ples. These  ranged  all  the  wa3"  from  half  grown  to  full  sized  larvae. 

On  August  11th  many  cocoons  were  found  in  the  open  orch- 
ards and  about  one-half  of  the  larvae  had  pupated.  Two  empty 
pupa  cases  were  found  protruding  from  cocoons,  and  fresh  looking 
adult  moths.  A few  newly  hatched  larvae  were  seen. 

We  believe  that  about  August  10th  marked  the  beginning  of 
the  second  brood  of  larvae. 

On  August  27th,  insects  were  found  in  all  stages,  but  it  was 
noticeable  that  there  were  fewer  moths  and  inhabited  cocoons 
than  on  August  10th.  As  later  developments  show  there  were 


16 


THE  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


many  larvae  in  the  fruit  at  this  date  but  there  were  few  outward 
indications.  One  might  almost  have  thought  that  the  trees  were 
practically  free  from  moth. 

On  October  5th,  the  appearance  was  very  different.  Many 
wormy  apples  vacated  by  the  larvae  were  in  evidence.  The  second 
brood  of  larvae  had  plainly  left  the  fruit,  though  a few  were  to  be 
found  still  feeding. 

It  was  on  this  date,  as  previously  stated,  that  the  moth  was 
seen  to  deposit  the  egg.  Six  other  eggs  were  found  in  the  same 
orchard  this  date  without  difficultj^,  and  a number  of  moths  were 
seen.  We  are  inclined  to  consider  these  late  moths  as  stragglers  of 
the  second  brood. 

To  summarize,  we  may  say  that  at  Missoula  in  the  summer  of 
1902  there  were  two  broods  of  the  codling  moth  and  probably  no 
more.  The  first  brood  began  to  go  into  the  fruit  about  the  18tb 
of  June,  and  the  second  brood  about  August  10th. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

It  would  be  out  of  place  in  the  present  paper  to  enter  a lengthy 
discussion  of  the  most  approved  means  of  combating  the  codling 
moth,  for  the  general  public  is  not  yet  called  upon  to  emplo^^  such 
means. 

Such  protective  measures  as  may  be  employed  to  enable  us  to 
retain  our  present  advantage  over  the  moth  may  well  be  con- 
sidered. 

It  is  desirable  to  continue  the  work  at  Missoula  in  order  to 
keep  at  a minimum  the  chances  of  infection  of  the  surrounding- 
country  and  the  valleys  of  the  Bitter  Root  river  and  Rattlesnake 
creek.  The  situation  at  Kalispell  should  also  be  thoroughly  looked 
into  and  as  energetic  means  employed  there  as  at  Missoula. 

We  believe  that  since  we  know  when  the  different  broods  begin 
to  enter  the  fruit  at  Missoula,  we  can  make  good  use  of  insecti- 
cides. Much  advantage  could  be  gained  by  again  banding  the 
trees.  Aluch  good  was  accomplished  with  bands  during  the  past 
season.  In  this  wa^^  many  of  the  insects  that  escaped  the  poison 
were  captured. 

We  recommend  the  use  of  Paris  green  as  an  insecticide  with 
the  usual  addition  of  lime. 


Bulletin  42. 


THE  CODLING  MOTH. 


17 


On  August  23rd,  an  apple  tree  was  selected  from  the  Experi- 
ment Station  orchard  at  Bozeman,  and  sprayed  with  a Bowker 
preparation  of  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of  three  pounds  to  fifty 
gallons  of  water,  which  is  the  strength  recommended  by  the  Bow- 
ker Insecticide  Company. 

The  application  was  made  personally  by  the  writer  and  care 
was  taken  to  spray  thoroughly  and  yet  not  over  spray. 

At  the  time  of  fall  harvesting,  the  apples  were  picked  and  part 
of  them  handed  over  to  the  Station  chemist.  Dr.  F.  W.  Traphagen, 
to  be  tested  for  arsenic.  Before  harvesting  considerable  rain  fell. 
Below  is  the  report  that  Dr.  Traphagen  made: 

Prof.  R.  A.  Cooley, 

Montana  Experiment  Station,  Bozeman,  Mont. 

Dear  Sir:  Following  are  the  results  obtained  in  the  analysis 


of  the  apples  you  submitted  to  me  some  time  ago: 

Number  of  apples 14 

Total  weight 41.5  oz. 

Average  weight 3.0  oz.  (scant) 

Total  lead  arsenate  obtained  from  apples..  .166  grains 

Equivalent  to  metallic  lead 115  grains 

Equivalent  to  arsenic  oxide 031  grains 


While  the  amounts  of  poisonous  substances  found  on  these  ap- 
ples is  not  great,  they  are  probably  dangerous,  from  the  fact  that 
lead  is  a cumulative  poison  and  that  the  presence  in  food  or  water 
of  relatively  smaller  qualities  than  that  present  in  these  apples,  is 
looked  upon  with  grave  suspicions  b3^  those  who  have  given  these 
(questions  careful  consideration. 

The  arsenic,  occurring  in  smaller  quantities,  adds  also  to  the 
element  of  danger  which  would  be  introduced  into  our  daily  lives 
b}"  using  arsenate  of  lead  for  spraying  apple  trees  under  the  con- 
dition of  your  experiment. 

It  seems  to  me  that  the  amount  remaining  upon  the  apples 
could  be  very  greatly  reduced  bA"  spraying  at  an  earlier  period, 
when  the  apples  were  small  or  even  when  in  the  bud. 

Experiments  on  spraying  at  different  periods  would  seem  to  be 
indicated  by  results  obtained  in  these  tests. 

Yours  truly, 

F.  W.  TRAPHAGEN. 


18 


THE  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


The  writer  was  somewhat  surprised  to  get  this  report  of  pos- 
sible danger  from  the  use  of  arsenate  of  lead  and  we  intend  to  make 
more  extended  investigations. 

One  of  the  advantages  of  arsenate  of  lead  over  Paris  green,  as 
an  insecticide,  is  that  it  forms  a film  of  the  poison  over  the  fruit 
and  foliage  that  is  not  easil^^  removed  by  rains.  It  has  been  felt 
that  this  would  be  particularly  useful  against  the  codling  moth 
since  the  eggs  hatch  and  the  larvae  evter  the  fruit  over  such  a long- 
period  of  time.  Uniform  success  has  attended  its  use  in  some  of 
the  eastern  states. 

We  still  feel  that  early  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  would  be 
more  desirable  than  with  Paris  green. 

We  are  indebted  to  Professor  M.  J.  Elrod  of  Missoula  and  Air. 
H.  B.  Dick  of  Kalispell  for  weather  records  that  have  been  of  much 
value  to  us  in  our  work. 


bulletin  No.  43, 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

Experiment  Station, 


OF  THE- 


Agrictilttiral  Colleg^e  of  Montana* 


DUTY  OF  WATER  IN  MONTANA. 


THIS  PUBLICATION  IS  THE  SECOND  OE  A SERIES  OF  FARMERS’ 
BULLETINS  ON  IRRIGATION  TOPICS. 


Bozeman,  Montana,  January,  1903. 


REPUBLICAN, 
Bozeman,  Montana, 
1903. 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

Experiment  Station. 

BOZEnAN,  = MONTANA. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor,  ^ 

James  Donovan,  Attorney-General,  J.  Ex-Officio Helena. 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  ) 

J.  M.  Evans, Missoula. 

C.  R.  Leonard, Butte. 

N.  W.  McConnell, Helena. 

W.  M.  Johnston Billings. 

O.  P.  Chisholm, Bozeman. 

J.  G.  McKay, Hamilton. 

G.  T.  Paul, Dillon. 

N.  B.  Holter, Helena. 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President, Bozeman. 

J.  M.  Robinson,  Vice-President, Bozeman. 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary, Bozeman. 

Joseph  Kountz, Bozeman. 

E.  B.  Lamme, *. Bozeman. 


STATION  STAFF. 


Samuel,  Fortier,  Ma.  E., 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S.,  . 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D., 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc., 

F.  B.  Linfield,  B.  S.  a, 

R.  W.  Fisher,  B.  S., 

Edmund  Burke 

H.  C.  Gardiner 


Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer. 

Chemist. 

Botanist. 

Entomologist. 

Agriculturist. 

Assistant  Horticulturist. 

Assistant  Chemist. 

Student  in  Charge  of  Poultry. 


Postoffice,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be  addressed  to  the 
Director. 

MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


Notice. — The  Bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to  any  citizen  of 
Montana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the  Station  for  that  purpose. 


Montana  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  NO.  43.  = = JANUARY,  1903. 


DUTY  OF  WATER  IN  MONTANA. 

BY  S.  FOKTIER. 


INTRODUCTION. 

This  is  the  second  of  a series  of  farmers’  bulletins  on  irrigation 
topics. 

The  results  herein  summarized,  together  with  additional  informa- 
tion which  will  appear  in  subsequent  publications,  represent  the  joint 
efPorts  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  this  Station.  The  funds  required  to  carry  on  the 
work  have  been  obtained  from  the  State  of  Montana,  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  and  this  Experiment  Station. 

The  general  features  of  all  the  irrigation  investigations  conducted 
by  this  Station  during  the  past  four  years  have  been  ably  planned 
and  supervised  by  Professor  Elwood  Mead.  During  the  past  season 
Mr.  Arthur  P.  Stover,  an  assistant  under  Professor  Mead,  was  in  direct 
charge  of  much  of  the  field  work.  The  writer  desires  also  to  acknowl- 
edge the  valuable  assistance  rendered  in  both  field  and  office  by  the 
senior  students  in  civil  engineering  of  the  Montana  Agricultural 
College. 

DUTY  OF  WATER. 

The  w'ord  “duty”  is  used  in  a variety  of  ways.  In  irrigation  it 
shows  the  relation  between  the  amount  of  water  used  and  the  area  of 
land  on  which  it  is  applied.  This  relation  may  be  expressed  in  sev- 
eral ways.  The  units  most  frequently  used  are  a miner’s  inch  of 
water  and  an  acre  of  land.  The  duty  of  water  may  be  high  or  low, 
depending  on  the  quantity  used  on  a given  area.  In  Southern  Cali- 
fornia, where  water  is  costly,  one  miner’s  inch  irrigates  on  an  average 


4 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


five  acres  of  land.  This  is  considered  a hiajh  duty,  and  is  rendered 
possible  by  preventing  waste  and  in  skillful  use.  In  certain  sections 
of  Montana  rfnd  the  Rocky  Mountain  States  the  duty  of  water  is  only 
one  inch  per  acre.  This  large  amount  of  water  is  frequently  required 
for  new  land  with  a dry  subsoil.  When,  however,  this  amount  is  used 
on  the  same  fields  for  fifteen  or  twenty  seasons  in  succession,  it  shows 
that  a large  percentage  is  wasted. 

The  duty  of  water  may  also  be  expressed  in  cubic  feet  per  second 
and  acres.  In  1890  the  legislative  assembly  of  Wyoming  rixed  the 
maximum  amount  of  water  that  could  be  legally  applied  in  irrigation 
in  that  state  by  providing  “That  no  allotment  shall  exceed  one  cubic 
foot  per  second  for  each  seventy  acres  of  land.”  From  1890  to  1900 
the  duty  of  water  under  the  Bear  River  Canal  system  in  Northern 
Utah  was  one  cubic  foot  per  second  for  each  eighty -acre  tract.  This 
duty  corresponds  to  one  Montana  miner’s  inch  for  two  acres. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  there  is  a better  way  to  express  duty 
of  water  than  by  either  the  miner’s  inch  or  the  cubic  foot  per  second. 
By  both  of  these  methods  one  is  left  in  doubt  as  to  the  volume  actually 
applied.  In  both,  the  flow  of  the  irrigation  stream  is  assumed  to  be 
continuous,  and  the  amount  of  water  used  will  depend  quite  as  much 
on  the  length  of  the  irrigation  season  as  on  the  size  of  the  stream. 
Fifty  miner’s  inches  flowing  for  eighty  days  is  equivalent  in  volume 
to  one  hundred  miner’s  inches  flowing  for  forty  days.  It  is  thus 
obvious  that  the  length  of  the  irrigation  season  must  be  fixed  before 
the  duty  can  be  ascertained.  It  seldom  happens  that  water  is  used 
for  the  same  number  of  days  in  any  two  counties,  or  even  precincts; 
hence  the  difficulty  in  ascertaining  the  duty  when  it  is  expressed  in 
acres,  per  miner’s  inch  or  cubic  foot.  The  better  way,  it  seems  to  the 
writer,  is  to  determine  the  quantity  of  water  applied  to  a particular 
field,  farm  or  district. 

Rainfall  is  measured  in  depth  over  the  surface  on  which  it  falls, 
and  since  irrigation  is  intended  to  supplement  the  natural  rainfall 
there  is  no  good  reason  why  it  should  not  be  measured  in  a similar 
manner.  Rain  and  snow  are  usually  measured  in  inches,  but  in 
expressing  duty  of  water  the  foot  and  fractions  of  a foot  are  uscxl 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


5 


instead.  When  the  quantity  of  water  used  is  stated,  it  is  expressed 
either  in  feet  over  the  surface  or  in  acre-feet.  An  acre-foot  is  that 
amount  of  water  which  will  cover  an  acre  to  the  depth  of  one  foot. 
In  Montana  the  average  rainfall  during  the  crop  growing  season  is 
over  six  inches.  We  will  assume  that  twenty-four  inches  is  added  by 
human  effort,  making  a total  of  thirty  inches,  or  two  and  one-half 
acre-feet.  This  is  considerably  greater  than  the  natural  supply  of  the 
humid  East  during  the  summer  seasou. 

ASCERTAINING  THE  DUTY  OF  WATER. 

At  first  thought,  it  seems  easy  to  ascertain  the  duty  of  water. 
Only  two  things  are  necessary — the  area  of  land  irrigated  and  the 
amount  of  water  applied.  In  actual  practice  it  is  not  so  easy.  The 
flow  of  the  irrigation  stream,  ditch  or  canal  fluctuates — it  is  seldom 
the  same  for  any  two  consecutive  hours  of  the  day.  This  necessitates 
constant  observations  at  the  place  of  measurement  or  the  introduction 
of  scientific  apparatus  which  will  record  every  change  in  volume. 
Then  again,  much  depends  on  where  the  water  used  in  irrigation  is 
measured.  If  it  were  conveyed  in  a tight  pipe,  there  would  be  no 
loss,  and  the  amount  entering  the  intake  would  correspond  with  that 
delivered  at  the  lower  end.  Usually  the  water  is  conveyed  in  an 
earthen  channel,  and  for  every  hundred  miner’s  inches  diverted  from 
the  natural  stream,  only  sixty  may  be  delivered,  the  remaining  forty 
inches  being  lost  along  the  route  by  seepage,  evaporation  und  leakage. 
In  the  results  herein  given,  the  duty  of  water  under  the  canals  was 
found  by  measuring  the  amount  of  water  which  passed  through  the 
headgates.  On  each  of  the  field  tests,  the  water  was  measured  as  it 
entered  the  highest  part  of  the  field.  The  latter  averaged  about 
eighteen  inches  in  depth  over  the  surface,  while  the  former  averaged 
nearly  forty-seven  inches. 

CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  DUTY  OF  WATER. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  amount  of  water  used  in  irrigation  dif- 
fers. One-half  of  a quarter  section  of  Jand  may  require  much  more 
water  than  the  other  half.  No  two  irrigated  valleys  within  the  borders 


6 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


of  a state  have  similar  physical  conditions^  and  each  arid  state,  or 
territory,  has  its  own  peculiar  characteristics  as  regards  water  for 
irrigation.  In  a practical  publication  of  this  kind  it  may  not  be  out 
of  place  to  outline  briefly  the  chief  conditions  which  affect  the  duty  of 
water: 

(1)  Losses  in  conveyance. — The  quantity  of  water  delivered  to 
the  farmers  is  frequently  only  one-half  that  taken  from  the  stream. 
The  various  losses  due  to  seepage,  evaporation  and  leakage  in  the  main 
canal  and  laterals  cause  this  large  reduction.  The  attention  of  the 
farmers  of  Montana  is  earnestly  called  to  this  fact  on  account  of  the 
large  financial  loss  entailed.  The  writer  does  not  wish  to  imply  that 
all  of  this  loss  can  be  prevented,  but  he  is  convinced  that  a large  per- 
centage might  be  saved  at  comparatively  small  cost. 

(2)  Climatic  conditions. — Of  these,  rainfall  is  perhaps  the  most 
important.  The  average  annual  precipitation  for  Montana  is  between 
fourteen  and  fifteen  inches.  The  months  of  greatest  precipitation  are 
April,  May  and  June,  the  period  when  moisture  is  needed  to  mature 
crops.  In  the  following  tables  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  rainfall 
varies  from  to  inches  and  averages  5f  inches.  This  amount 
of  moisture  in  the  case  of  the  field  tests  forms  on  an  average  30  per 
cent  of  the  total  amount  of  water  applied  to  the  crops. 

In  the  colder  arid  states  the  season  is  shorter  and  irrigation  is 
practiced  only  a short  period  in  summer;  while  farther  south,  as  for 
example  in  Arizona,  water  for  irrigation  may  be  used  throughout 
three-fourths  of  the  year.  Then,  too.  evaporation  is  affected  by  tem- 
perature, wind,  etc.,  and  in  a region  of  high  temperatures,  or  hot,  dry 
winds,  or  both,  the  consequent  loss  of  water  by  evaporation  is  great. 

(3)  Diversified  farming. — A farmer  whose  cultivated  crops  are 
confined  to  such  cereals  as  oats,  wheat  and  barley  cannot  make  the 
most  of  his  water  supply.  Such  crops  may  require  a large  amount  of 
water  from  the  time  the  plants  cover  the  ground  until  the  grain  is 
well  headed  out,  but  this  period  is  limited  to  from  thirty  to  fifty  days. 
The  man  who  raises  grain  only  has  no  further  use  for  irrigation  water 
during  that  season.  When  diversified  crops,  such  as  alfalfa,  clover, 
grain,  roots  and  fruit  are  grown  it  is  possible  to  increase  the  area 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION 


7 

without  increasing  the  amount  of  water  used,  and  so  obtain  a higher 
duty. 

(4)  Time  rotation. — The  prevailing  custom  in  several  states  and 
territories  of  the  arid  West  is  to  apportion  water  by  the  time  method 
instead  of  in  continuous  streams.  In  the  case  of  small  holdings  in 
particular,  water  can  be  more  economically  used  in  a proper  system 
of  time  rotation.  The  work  can  be  better  done  and  at  less  cost  than 
where  a small  stream  is  used  continuously. 

(5)  Manner  of  paying  for  water. — A canal  corporation,  which 
conveys  water  to  distribute  to  farmers  for  a fixed  rental  usually  sells  a 
water  right  for  a certain  tract  of  land.  The  purchaser,  by  the  terms 
of  his  contract  is  compelled  to  use  his  allotted  share  of  water  on  the 
tract  for  which  a water  right  has  been  purchased  and  not  elsewhere. 
If  the  user  were  granted  permission  to  buy  water  by  volume  from  the 
canal  company  and  to  use  it  wherever  he  pleased  a much  greater  econ- 
omy in  its  use  would  result. 

(6)  Judicial  decrees  for  excessive  amounts. — For  the  most 
part  the  volumes  of  water  used  in  irrigation  are  unknown.  As  a rule 
few  ditches  or  canals  are  measured  until  after  the  owners  are  threat- 
ened  with  litigation.  Then  there  is  great  inducement  for  all  parties 
concerned  to  try  to  magnify  both  the  amount  diverted  and  the  extent 
of  the  land  irrigated.  When  a witness  does  not  know  the  capacity  of  a 
ditch,  and  it  is  to  his  interests  to  make  it  appear  to  be  large,  his  testi- 
mony has  usually  a decided  bias  in  that  direction.  When  no  reliable 
measurements  of  ditches  have  been  made,  water  right  cases  can  only 
be  decided  on  the  testimony  submitted  and  this  accounts  for  the  many 
recorded  cases  in  which  excessive  amounts  have  been  decreed. 

(7)  Cultivation  and  grading. — The  proper  cultivation  of  the  soil 
is  necessary,  in  both  humid  and  arid  climates.  Cultivated  plants  require 
a finely  pulverized  soil.  In  regions  deficient  in  rainfall,  thorough  cul- 
tivation serves  to  retain  the  moisture,  by  lessening  the  amount  of  evap- 
oration. Grading  is  even  more  important.  To  irrigate  land  that  has 
a rough,  uneven  surface,  not  leveled  to  a uniform  grade,  is  frequently  the 
cause  of  much  waste  of  water,  extra  labor,  small  crops  and  eventually 
damaged  land. 


8 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


(8)  Kind  of  crop. — The  proper  percentage  of  moisture  in  the 
soil  does  not  differ  much  for  the  common  cultivated  plants.  Some 
crops  require  more  water  than  others  but  this  difference  is  due  chiefly 
to  a longer  period  of  growth  or  to  the  time  when  water  is  needed. 
Barley,  for  instance  will  mature  in  three  and  one-half  months,  while 
•sugar  beets  require  a month  longer.  Again  it  is  often  difficult  to 
obtain  sufficient  water  to  irrigate  root  crops,  vegetables  and  occasion- 
ally orchards.  This  does  not  arise  from  the  fact  that  a larger  supply 
is  required  but  it  is  due  to  the  time  of  irrigation,  the  last  irrigation  be- 
ing usually  applied  late  in  the  season,  when  the  flow  of  natural  streams 
is  low. 

(9)  Manner  of  Irrigating— The  duty  of  water  depends  to  a great 
extent  on  the  skill  and  attention  of  the  irrigator  as  well  as  on  the  way 
it  is  distributed  over  the  field.  Where  flooding  is  practiced,  much 
depends  on  the  location  and  grade  of  the  field  laterals  as  well  as  the 
direction  of  the  seed  drills.  In  Montana  a large  percentage  of  the  water 
conveyed  to  the  irrigated  fields  is  wasted  in  the  midnight  hours  when 
there  is  no  one  to  look  after  it. 

(10)  Character  of  the  soil  and  subsoil. — A coarse  sandy  or 
gravelly  soil  requires  much  more  water  than  a heavy,  clay  soil.  When 
the  upper  layer  is  porous  and  the  subsoil  impervious,  the  conditions 
are  favorable  for  sub-irrigation  in  which  case  a small  amount  of  water 
may  irrigate  a large  area.  On  the  other  hand  the  top  layer  of  soil  may 
be  underlaid  by  gravel  wash.  Such  formations  require  an  abundant 
supply  of  water. 

(11)  The  ground  water  level. — In  some  localities  the  water  in  | 
wells  will  rise  near  the  surface  during  the  latter  part  of  the  irrigation  | 
season.  This  indicates  that  the  subsoil  is  completely  saturated  and  i 
that  the  minimum  amount  of  water  should  be  applied  in  irrigation,  i 
To  over-irrigate  such  tracts  would  result  in  damage  to  both  crops  and  i 
soil. 

(12)  The  configuration  of  the  surface. — An  even  uniform  r 
slope,  neither  too  steep  nor  too  flat,  is  one  of  the  most  favorable  con-  j 
ditions  for  the  economic  use  of  water.  Tracts  that  are  traversed  by  j 
ravines  or  other  irregular  formations,  are  not  only  difficult  to  irrigate-  [ 
but  the  waste  of  water  is  usually  considerable. 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


9 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  A KNOWLEDGE  OF  THE 
DUTY  OF  WATER. 

A knowledge  of  the  service  or  duty  of  water  is  necessary  in  all 
irrigated  regions.  It  has  always  been  regarded  as  one  of  the  essentials 
in  irrigation.  As  rural  communities  increase  in  population  the  extent 
of  the  cultivated  area  is  also  increased,  new  ditches  are  excavated  and 
the  capacities  of  old  channels  are  enlarged  until  a time  comes 
when  the  natural  streams  are  overtaxed  and  disputes  arise  as  to  the 
rights  of  each  claimant.  Such  controversies  can  only  be  settled  on 
the  amount  of  water  required  to  mature  crops. 

The  farmer  knows  how  much  seed  to  sow  for  each  kind  of  crop. 
He  should  also  know  how  much  water  to  apply.  Without  this  know- 
ledge farming  operations  cannot  be  economically  planned  or  carried  on. 
The  farmer  who  buys  100  miners’  inches  from  a canal  company,  but  is 
ignorant  of  how  many  acres  this  supply  will  irrigate  is  handicapped. 

When  farmers  unite  in  co-operative  undertakings,  the  location, 
extent  and  character  of  the*  land  to  be  reclaimed  are  usually  familiar  to 
all.  The  puzzling  questions  to  such  parties  are  the  amount  of  water 
required  and  the  size  of  the  ditch  to  convey  it.  The  same  problem 
confronts  the  officers  of  the  large  capitalistic  canal.  The  expenditures 
may  be  large  and  an  error  in  the  estimate  of  the  amount  of  water  re- 
quired may  entail  heavy  losses. 

In  the  near  future  the  Federal  Government  will  expend  in  all 
probability,  several  million  dollars  in  this  state  on  irrigation  canals  and 
storage  reservoirs.  In  such  large  enterprises  the  area  of  land  which  a 
standarl  unit  of  flowing  water  will  irrigate  is  one  of  great  importance. 

And  Anally,  without  a knowledge  of  the  duty  of  water,  it  is  im- 
possible to  determine  equitably  rights  to  its  use.  'When  a court,  owing 
to  a wrong  conception  of  the  quantity  of  water  required,  grants  to  an 
individual  or  corporation,  three  or  four  times  more  than  he  can  use,  it 
not  only  deprives  other  settlers  of  a much  needed  supply  but  the  appli- 
cation of  so  much  water  tends  to  convert  good  land  into  bogs  and 
marshes. 

AMOUNT  OF  WATER  USED 

In  all  of  the  experiments  made  to  ascertain  the  duty  of  water,  the 


10 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


results  of  which  ^re  herein  briefly  recorded,  no  attempt  was  made  to 
control  or  limit  the  amount  used.  The  proprietor  of  the  held  or  farm, 
or  his  employe,  was  free  to  turn  on  as  much  water  as  he  considered 
necessary.  A part  of  the  supply  usually  flowed  off  the  field,  or  was 
otherwise  wasted,  but  no  deduction  was  made  for  this  waste.  The 
total  amount  entering  the  highest  part  of  the  field  was  measured  by 
means  of  a trapezoidal  weir  or  other  devise  and  the  area  under  crop  in- 
cluding the  space  occupied  by  the  feed  ditches  and  laterals  was  sur- 
veyed in  the  ordinary  manner.  From  this  information  the  depth  of 
water  over  the  surface  irrigated  was  ascertained.  This  depth  over  the 
surface  in  the  46  field  tests  varied  from  a trifle  more  than  four  inches 
(.35  feet)  to  over  seventy-two  inches  (6.06  feet)  and  averaged  eighteen 
inches  or  one  and  one-half  acre-feet  per  acre  irrigated.  . 

In  Table  No.  1,  the  duty  is  expressed  in  acres  per  miner’s  inch, 
the  lowest  duty  was  at  the  rate  of  one  miner’s  inch  per  acre  and  the 
highest  duty  was  one  miner’s  inch  for  13  acres.  The  average  of  all  the 
46  experiments  conducted  on  fields  was  at  the  rate  of  one  miner’s  inch; 
for  3.7  acres.  In  another  column  of  the  same  table  the  duty  is  ex- 
pressed in  acres  per  cubic  foot  per  second.  The  average  number  of 
acres  irrigated  per  cubic  foot  per  second  was  142. 

There  is  much  more  water  used  per  acre  under  the  canals.  In 
seven  canals,  the  results  of  which  are  given  in  this  publication,  the 
combined  area  is  41466  acres  and  the  average  depth  of  water  applied 
over  this  surface  was  3.9  feet,  or  nearly  47  inches:  Under  this  duty 
one  cubic  foot  per  second  would  irrigate  about  80  acres  and  one  Mon- 
tana miner’s  inch,  2 acres. 

TABLES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Space  would  not  permit  a description  of  each  experiment.  It  was 
necessary  to  state  the  facts  in  the  briefest  possible  manner.  The 
chief  results  have  accordingly  been  presented  in  the  form  of  tabulated 
statements.  And  since  the  main  purpose  of  the  bulletin  is  to  show 
the  amount  of  water  used  in  irrigation  it  was  deemed  advisable  to 
represent  this  quantity  by  diagram  as  well  as  by  figures.  In  each  of 
the  46  experiments  conducted  on  fields  there  is  inserted  a small  illus- 
tration to  the  left  of  the  statement.  This  is  drawn  on  a scale  of  one 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


11 


inch  to  the  foot  and  shows  graphically  the  quantity  of  water  applied  in 
irrigation  as  well  as  the  rainfall.  The  dark  portion  represents  the 
amount  received  in  irrigation,  the  light  portion,  the  amount  received 
in  rainfall. 

In  experiment  No.  1,  for  instance,  the  reader  who  glances  at  the 
diagram  observes  that  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  total  amount  of 
water  received  is  from  irrigation.  If  he  wishes  the  exact  figures,  the 
statement  shows  that  1.02  feet,  or  12 J inches,  was  spread  over  the 
entire  surface  of  a 31-acre  clover  field  and  that  the  amount  of  rain 
which  fell  on  the  same  surface  during  the  period  of  growth  was  .44 
feet,  or  SJ  inches. 

The  duty  of  water  under  the  canals  for  1902  is  illustrated  by 
the  plates,  which  are  modeled  after  those  in  Bulletin  No.  86,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture.  The  dark  portion  of  the  main  illustration 
shows  when  the  water  began  to  be  used,  the  daily  amount  and  the  end 
of  the  irrigation  season.  The  smaller  cut  to  the  right  shows  the  duty 
of  water  for  each  month  as  well  as  the  rainfall  for  the  same  period. 


12 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


£.xperiniei\t 


Location 

Crop 

Yield  per  acre 

Nature  of  soil 

Area 

Date  of  first  irrigation 

Date  of  second  irrigation 

Average  head  of  water  used 

Depth  of  water  applied 

Rainfall 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 


C^xperiment 


Location 

Crop 

Yield  per  acre 

Nature  of  soil 

Area 

Date  of  first  irrigation 

Date  of  second  irrigation 

Average  head  of  water  used 

Depth  of  water  applied 

Rainfall 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 


No.  1. 

Gallatin  Valley. 
Clover. 

3 tons. 

Clay  loam. 

31  acres. 

June  17-22. 

July  26-Aug.  2. 
1.54  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 
1.02  ft. 

.44  ft.  . 

1.46  ft. 


# 

) 

No.  2. 

Gallatin  Valley. 

31.25’ bushels. 

Clay  loam. 

4.23  acres. 

June  28. 

July  11-12. 

1.28  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

1.10  ft. 

.41  ft. 

1.51  ft. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


13 


Experiment  No.  3. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Grain, 

Yield  per  acre 57.89  bushels. 

Nature  of  soil Loam, 

Area 11.27  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  23-27. 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  12-14. 

Average  head  of  water^used 1.81  cu.  ft,  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.98  ft. 

Rainfall 0.42  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received . . 2.40  ft. 


Experiment  No. 


Location ' Gallatin  Valley, 

Crop Barley. 

Yield  per  acre 73  bushels. 

Nature  of  soil Loam. 

Area 66.39  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation July  5-1.3. 

Average  head  of  water  used 4.04  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 0.98  ft. 

Rainfall 0.41  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 1.39  ft. 


14 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Experiment  No.  5* 


Location 

Crop  

Yield  per  acre 

Nature  of  Soil 

Area 

Date  of  first  irrigation 

Average  feed  of  water  used 

Depth  of  water  applied 

Rainfall 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 


Gallatin  Valley. 
Oats. 

51  bushels. 

Clay  loam. 

23.41  acres. 

July  13-18 

3.54  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

1.53  ft. 

.38  ft. 

1.91  ft. 


Experiment  No.  6. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Oats. 

Yield  per  acre 72.75  bushels. 

Nature  of  Soil Clay  loam. 

Area 7.26  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation July  6-7. 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  22-24. 

Average  head  of  water  used 1.58  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.34  ft. 

Rainfall 36  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received, , 1.70  ft. 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


15 


K^xperiment  No.  7. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Oats. 

Yield  per  acre 72.75  bushels. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam. 

Area 2.48  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation July  7-8. 

Date  of  second  irrigation  July  25. 

Average  head  of  water  used 1.96  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 2.16  ft. 

Rainfall 36  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 2.52  ft. 


B 


-ft. 


Experiment  No.  8. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Oats. 

Nature  of  soil Dark  loam. 

Area 25.09  acres 

Date  of  first  irrigation July  20-26. 

Average  head  of  water  used ....  3.13  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied ; . 1.28  ft. 

Rainfall 44  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 1.72  ft. 


16 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


£ -ft. 


/ -ft 


Experiment  No.  Q. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Clover. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam. 

Area 66.39  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  14-22. 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  28- Aug.  17. 

Average  head  of  water  used 2.54  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.98  ft. 

Rainfall 41  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 2.42  ft, 


Experiment  No.  lO. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Barley. 

Yield  per  acre 46.5  bushels. 

Nature  of  soil Dark  loam. 

Area 4.14  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  12-13. 

Date  of  second  irrigation June  29  July  1. 

Average  head  of  water  used 1.24  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.50  ft. 

Rainfall 28  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received  . . 1.78  ft. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


17 


£.xperiineffit  No.  11. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Oats. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam. 

Area 25.09  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  18-21. 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  2.3-29. 

Average  head  of  water  used . , . , 1.40  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 64  ft. 

Rainfall 39  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 1.03  ft. 


£ 


C.xperiii\e]iit  No.  12. 


Location 

Crop 

Yield  per  acre 

Nature  of  soil 

Area 

Date  of  first  irrigation 

Date  of  second  irrigation 

Average  head  of  water  used . . 

Depth  of  water  applied 

Rainfall 

Total  depth  of  water  received . , 


Gallatin  Valley. 
Wheat  and  Clover, 
38.33  bu.3,170  Ib.clover 
Garden  loam. 

2 acres. 

Juno  18. 

July  11-12. 

1.40  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

.77  ft. 

.30  ft. 

1.07  ft. 


18 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


Kxpeiriment  No.  13. 


Location 

Crop 

Yield  per  acre 

Nature  of  soil 

Area 

Date  of  first  irrigation 

Date  of  second  irrigation 

Average  head  of  water  used 

Depth  of  water  applied 

Rainfall 

Total  depth  of  water  received . . 


Gallatin  Valley. 

Oats  and  Peas. 

75.58  bu.  O.  1330  lb.  P 
Loam. 

2 acres. 

June  18r 
July  11. 

1.37  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

.56  ft. 

.39  ft. 

.95  ft. 


Experiment  No.  14'* 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Barley. 

^ Yield  per  acre 87.29  bushels. 

Nature  of  soil Loam. 

Area 1 acre. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  19. 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  12. 

Average  head  of  water  used. . 1.38  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.17  ft. 

Rainfall 28  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received . . 1.45  ft. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


19 


Experiment  No.  15* 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Oats, 

Yield  per  acre 74.67  bushels. 

Nature  of  soil*. Loam. 

Area 8.51  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  15-17. 

Date  of  second  I irrigation July  6-7. 

Average  head  of  water  used ....  1.86  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.39  ft. 

Rainfall 0.40  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received . . 1.79  ft. 


Experiment  No.  lO. 


n Location > Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Barley. 

Yield  per  acre 68.59  bushels. 

Nature  of  soil Loam. 

Area 4.52  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  13  14. 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  1-2. 

Average  head  of  water  used 1.99  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.96  ft. 

Rainfall 0.42  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 2.38  ft. 


20 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


E^xperin\ei\t 


Location 

Crop 

Yield  per  acre 

Nature  of  soil 

Area 

Date  of  first  irrigation 

Date  of  second  irrigation ! 

Date  of  third  irrigation 

Date  of  fourth  irrigation 

Average  head  of  water  used .... 

Depth  of  water  applied 

Rainfall 

Total  depth  of  water  received  . . 


Experiment 

Location 

Crop 

Nature  of  soil 

Area 

Date  of  first  irrigation 

Date  of  second  irrigation 

Date  of  third  irrigation 

A verage  head  of  water  used 

Depth  of  water  applied 

Rainfall 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 


No.  17. 

Gallatin  Valley. 
Clover. 

5 tons. 

Clay  loam. 

7.26  acres. 

June  4-5. 

July  3-5. 

July  19-21. 

Aug.  1-4. 

1.57  cu.  ft.  per  sec^ 
2.70  ft. 

.44  ft. 

3.14  ft. 


No.  18. 

Gallatin  Valley. 
Clover; 

Clay  loam. 

35.9  acres. 

June  5-7. 

July  13-16: 

July  26-28. 

2.22  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 
1.79  ft. 

.44‘ft. 

2.23  ft. 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


21 


f^xperixnent  No.  IQ. 


Location Yellowstone  County. 

Crop Alfalfa. 

Yield  per  acre 5.17  tons. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam. 

Area  irrigated 5.3.4  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation July  17-27. 

Average  head  of  water  used 3.52  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1..30  ft. 

Rainfall 44  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 1.74  ft. 


Experiment  No.  20. 


Location Bitter  Root  Valley. 

Crop Orchard. 

Nature  of  soil Vegetable  loam. 

Area 40  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation April  28-30. 

Date  of  second  irrigation June  7-13. 

Date  of  third  irrigation July  9-14. 

Date  of  fourth  irrigation Aug.  12-14. 

Average  head  of  water  used 2.36  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied  1.46  ft. 

Rainfall 13  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 1..59  ft. 


22  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Experiment  No.  21. 


Location Bitter  Root  Valley. 

Crop Oats. 

Yield  per  acre 34.03  bushels. 

Nature  of  soil Gravelly. 

Area 102.2  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation May  23- June  19. 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  19- Aug.  8 

Average  head  of  water  used. . . . 7.05  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 6.06  ft. 

Rainfall 13  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 6.19  ft. 


MOJNTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


23 


2 


Experiment  No.  22. 


Location Bitter  Root  Valley. 

Crop Oats. 

Yield  per  acre 33.37  bushels. 

Nature  of  soil Vegetable  Loam. 

Area  .....;  i 161.7  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation May  22,  June  11. 

Date  of  Second  irrigation July  21-30. 

Average  head  of  water  used 3.75  cu.  ft,  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.30  ft. 

Rainfall 13  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received . . 1.43  ft. 


Experiment  No.  23. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Clover. 

Yield  per  acre 3.36  tons. 

Nature  of  soil Loam. 

Area 20.86  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  5-7. 

Date  of  second  Irrigation July  20-22,  Aug.  2-7, 

Date  of  second  irrigation Aug.  11-16. 

Average  head  of  water  used 1.52  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 92  ft. 

Rainfall 65  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 1.57  ft. 


24 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


Experiment  No.  24* 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Clover. 

Yield  per  acre 3.36  tons. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam. 

Area 5.58  acres 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  8^ 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  9-10 

Date  of  third  irrigation July  25-29 

Average  head  of  water  used 1.38  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.81  ft. 

Rainfall 67  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received , . 2.48  ft. 


2 


-ft. 


Experiment  No.  25. 


Location Gallatin  VaDey. 

Crop Clover. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam. 

Area 7.13  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  17-18. 

Date'of  second  irrigation July  14-15. 

Average  head  of  f water  used. . 1.65  cu.  ft.'per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.24  ft. 

Rainfall 62  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water^  received . . 1.86  ft. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


25 


£xperiiTiei\t  No.  20. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Clover. 

Nature  of  soil Loam. 

Area 6.85  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  18-19. 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  12-13. 

Date  of  third  irrigation July  29- Aug.  6. 

Average  head  of  water  used 1.40  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.54  ft. 

Rainfall 62  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received . . 2.16  ft. 


C.xperiment  No.  27. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Wheat. 

Yield  per  acre 43.2  bushels. 

Nature  of  soil Loam. 

Area 5.24  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  27-28. 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  13-14. 

Average  head  of  water  used 1.47  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.19  ft. 

Rainfall 45  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 1,64  ft. 


26 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


Experiment  No.  28. 


Location 

Crop 

Yield  per  acre 

Nature  of  soil 

Area 

Date  of  first  irrigation 

Date  of  second  irrigation 

Average  head  of  water  used 

Depth  of  water  applied 

Rainfall 

Total  depth  of  water  received. , 


Gallatin  Valley. 
Wheat,  Barley,  Clover. 
42.9bu61.5bu  1.59  tons 
Clay  loam. 

3 acres 
June  28-29 
July  15-16 
1.23  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

.76  ft. 

.43  ft. 

1.19  ft. 


Experiment  No.  29. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Sugar  Beets. 

Yield  per  acre 10  ton. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam. 

Area 3 acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation July  13-14. 

Date  of  second  irrigation J uly  29-30. 

Date  of  third  irrigation Aug.  16-17. 

Average  head  of  water  used..  .44  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.46  ft. 

Rainfall 59  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 2.05  ft. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


27 


C>xperinienit  No,  30. 


Location Gallatin  Valley 

Crop Oats 

Yield  per  acre 73  bushels. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam 

Area 15.35  acres 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  28-July  2 

~ Date  of  second  irrigation July  16-17,  July  22-25 

Average  head  of  water  used 1.63  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.62  ft. 

Rainfall 43  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received . . 2.05  ft. 


Experiment  No.  31, 


Location Gallatin  Valley 

Crop Clover. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam. 

Area 27.84  acres 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  21-25 

Average  head  of  water  used. . 3.33  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 95  ft. 

Rainfall 62  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 1.57  ft. 


28 


mojntana  experiment  station. 


Experinr^ent  No.  32. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Barley. 

Yield  per  acre 59  bushels. 

Nature  of  soil Loam. 

Area 12.5  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation July  2-3,  July  5-6. 

Average  head  of  water  used 2.L8  cu.  R,  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 34  ft. 

Rainfall 46  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received . . 1.30  ft. 


Experiment  No.  33. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Peas. 

Yield  per  acre 37.5  bushels. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam. 

Area 8.40  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation July  8-9. 

Average  head  of  water  used 1.67  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 35  ft. 

Rainfall 77  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received . . 1.12  ft. 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


29 


Experiment  No,  34» 


Location Gallatin  Valley 

Crop Oats 

Nature  of  soil Loam 

Area 37.3  acres 

Date  of  first  irrigation July  9-23 

Average  head  of  water  used. . . . 1.66  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.26  ft. 

Rainfall 45  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 1.71  ft. 


Experiment  No.  35» 


Location Gallatin  Valley 

Crop Orchard. 

Nature  of  soil Gravelly  loam. 

Area 40  acres 

Date  of  first  irrigation April  15-18 

Date  of  second  irrigation June  27-30 

Date  of  third  irrigation Aug.  13-18 

Date  of  fourth  irrigation Sept.  1-2 

Average  head  of  water  used. . 2.43  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.56  ft. 

Rainfall 49  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 2.05  ft. 


30 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


1 

I 


£ 


-ft 


C>xperiment  No.  30. 


Location Bitter  Root  Valley » 

Crop Clover, 

Yield  per  acre 1.06  tons. 

Nature  of  soil Gravelly  loam. 

/ Area  irrigated 161.7  acres. 

' Date  of  first  irrigation May  11-28. 

Date  of  second  irrigation June  23- July  2. 

“ Date  of  third  irrigation Aug.  29-Sept.  8. 

Average  head  of  water  used 3.40  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.50  ft. 

Rainfall 49  ft. 

- Total  depth  of  water  received. . 1.99  ft. 


Experiment  No.  37. 


Location  Bitter  Root  Valley. 

Crop Clover. 

Yield  per  acre 1 ton. 

Nature  of  soil Gravelly. 

Area 102.  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation Apr.  20-May  2 

Date  of  second  irrigation May  4-16,  21-30. 

Date  of  third  irrigation June  11-July  3. 

Date  of  fourth  irrigation July  29-Aug.  13 

Average  head  of  water  used 4.01  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 2.22  ft. 

Rainfall 45  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 2.67  ft. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


£xperimei\t  No.  38. 

Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Oats. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam. 

Area 5.38  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation '.  June  24-26. 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  17-18. 

Average  head  of  water  used 1.30  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.27  ft. 

Rainfall 54  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 1.81  ft. 


£>xperimeiit  No.  3Q. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Wheat. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam. 

Area 5.62  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  22-23, 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  25-31. 

Average  head  of  water  used 2.43  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 2.43  ft. 

Rainfall 72  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received . . 3.15  ft. 


31 


82 


• MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


1 


E^xperiment  No.  40. 


Locatiou Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Clover. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam. 

Area 9.72  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation . June  3-6. 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  13-17. 

Average  head  of  water  used 1.79  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1,65  ft. 

Rainfall 78  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received . . 2.43  ft. 


E^xperiment  No.  41* 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Oats. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam. 

Area 8.93  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  11-14, 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  19-22. 

Average  head  of  water  used 1.49  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.76  ft. 

Rainfall 54  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received . . 2.30  ft. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


33 


2. 


-ff. 


£.3cpei*iniea:\t  No. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Alfalfa. 

Nature  of  soil ( lay  loam. 

Area 4.02  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  10-11. 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  17-18. 

Average  head  of  water  used 1.56  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.01  ft. 

Rainfall 78  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received . . 1.79  ft. 


Experimefit  No.  ^3. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop !.  Barley. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam. 

Area 19.8  acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  14-17. 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  25-30. 

Average  head  of  water  used 2.17  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 97  ft. 

Rainfall 64  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 1.61  ft. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


M 


Kjcperimei^t  No.  4’^* 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Rotation  Plats. 

Nature  of  soil Clay  loam. 

Area 8 acres. 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  26-27. 

Date  of  second  irrigation July  18-19. 

Average  head  of  water  used 1.92  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 1.07  ft. 

Rainfall 64  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received, . 1.71  ft. 


NOTE:  Rainfall  as  given  in  cut  is  incorrect  and 
should  be  .64  ft. 


Experiment  No.  4'5* 


Location 

Crop 

Nature  of  soil 

Area 

Date  of  first  irrigation 

Depth  of  water  applied 

Rainfall 

Total  depth  of  water  received. . 


Gallatin  Valley. 
Clover. 

Loam. 

27.84  acres. 
June  17-24. 

1.00  ft. 

.78  ft. 

1.78  ft. 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


i 


Experiment  No.  46. 


Location Gallatin  Valley. 

Crop Clover. 

Nature  of  soil /. Loam. 

81..3  acres 

Date  of  first  irrigation June  6-30 

Average  head  of  water  used 0.83  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

Depth  of  water  applied 3.13  ft. 

Rainfall 78  ft. 

Total  depth  of  water  received . . 3.91  ft. 


Table  No*  I* 

In  the  following  table,  the  length  of  the  irrigation  season  for  each  of  the  valleys  in  which  experiments  were  made 
has  been  fixed.  Knowing  approximately  the  number  of  days  in  which  water  is  used,  it  is  possible  to  determine  the 
duty  of  water  in  acres  per  cubic  foot  per  second  and  also  per  miner’s  inch.  This  has  been  done  in  columns  8 and  9 of  table. 

1899. 


36 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


W * 

ACRES 
FT.  PE 

ai«5iM«DOiCD-^fO 
C-CDO50O1— ICOOO*^ 

IN 

CU. 

W 

!>■  H 

O g 
s < 

f-i 

FEET. 

1.02 

1.10 

1.98 

.98 

1.53 

1.31 

2.16 

1.28 

w ^ 

fi  ® 

g 

o 

o 

ON 


le:ngth  of 

IRRIGATION 

SEASON. 

CO 

...... 

3 

*“5 

Ph 

3 tons. 
31.25  bu.| 

51.46  “ 

51,00  bu. 
72.75  bu. 
72.75  bu. 

AREA 

IRRIGATED 

IN  ACRES. 

27.44 

4.23 

11.27 

66.39 

23.41 

7.26 

2.48 

25.00 

* 

s 

P 

cd 

O 

P 

O 

o . 

Ph 

^ o 


>> 

S CO.Jh,2  03  «3  CC  to 

OOmOCQOOOO 


AMOUNT  OF  WATER  APPLIED. 

IN  ACRES  PER 

miner’s  inch. 

i 

1 

1 

cOi-H,-i  CO  oaoicococ-ioi-icoocc  j 
Ol  M 1.0  GO  CO  CO  OJ  01  lO  -41  -i  ! 

IN  ACRES  PER 

CU.  FT.  PER  SEC. 

C-  CO  cc  t- <M  ^ IC  ri 

Oi  C^3  00  CO  lO  CC  Ci  CO  O O t-*  C5  -H* 

i-H  iM  CC  tH  i-l  ^ ^ 

IN  DEPTH  OVER 

SURFACE. 

FEET 

1.98 

1.50 

.64 

.77 

.56 

1.17 

1.39  1 

1.96 

2.70 

1.79 

1.30 

1.46 

1.30 

6.06 

RAINFALL  IN 
DEPTH  OVER 
SURFACE. 

H-HoOOi  O 

g-tOJCO  CO  C0  01-tH-)<'Tt<-!'-t'r-li-l,- 

LENGTH  OF 
IRRIGATION 
SEASON. 

June  1-Aug  31 . 
92  days 

May  18-Sept.  30 
135  days 
Apr.  25-Aug.  31 
128  days 

YIELD 
PER  ACRE 

1 

46.50  bu. 

w-38.33  bu 
c-3170  lb. 
0-75. 58bu. 
p-1330  lb. 
87.29  bu. 
74.67  “ 
68.59  “ 
5.00  tons. 

5.17  tons. 

33. (K)  bu. 
.34.00  bu. 

AREA 

IRRIGATE, D 

IN  ACRES. 

66.39 

4.14 

25.09 

2.00 

2.00 

1.00 

8.51 

4.52 

7.26 

35.90 

.53.40 

40.00 

161.70 

102.20 

COUNTY. 

Gallatin. 

Yellowstone. 

Ravalli. 

KIND  OF 
CROP. 

Clover 

Barley 

Oats 

Wheat  1 a. 
Clover  1 a. 
Oats  la... 
Peas  la... 

Barley 

Oats 

Barley 

Clover 

Clover 

Alfalfa  .... 
Orchard.  .. 

Oats 

Oats 

I90J 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


;i7 


M ?0  ?<J  CO  'M  ?C  -M 


l2SsSg??Sr=liss3il3 


gSStiSPPi-SSSSISSSSSS! 

‘.^^^r-ioOO^T-H  THTHr-i'M 


RAINFALL  IN 
DEPTH  OVER 
SURFACE. 

LENGTH  OF 
IRRIGATION 
SEASON. 

II. .......... II.. 

Jh^  I ^ 

B a 

YIELD 
PER  ACRE 

3.36  tons 
3.36  “ 

■3.36  “ 

3.36  “ 

46.20  bu. 
w-42.90  “ 
b-61.50  “ 
C-1.59  ton 
10  tons 

73  bu. 

3 tons 
59.0  bu. 
37.5  bu. 

0.9  ton 
1.0  ton 

AREA 

IRRIGATED 
IN  ACRES. 

. /'v  • 

COUNTY. 

I i. . 

1 1 

KIND  OF 
CROP. 

Clover 

Clover 

Clover 

Clover 

Wheat  — 
Wheat  1 a. 
Barley  1 a. 
Clover  1 a . 
Sugar  beet 

Oats 

Clover 

Barley 

Peas 

Oats 

Orchard. .. 

Clover 

Clover 

(N 


Pi 

ili 

M 0 


§§ 

o ^ ■ 


) Ci  :0  t—  1.'^  it 

' 1-!  cc  ti  ti  1-H 


Is  S:;5SSSS^^; 

’ r-i  C'l  ,-i  .-(  rH  rH 


!3 


T3 


o 8s^?:2g?g^o 
2 


: 

I* 


38 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


DUTY  OF  WATER  UNDER  CANALS. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  the  amount  of  water  used  undei 
canals  is  much  greater  than  under  laterals,  or  on  individual  farmi; 
or  fields.  This  difference  is  readily  accounted  for  when  one  takes  intc 
consideration  the  porous  character  of  most  channels,  the  defects  ii 
construction  and  the  loss  due  to  evaporation.  In  addition  to  this 
there  is  another  loss.  Except  during  the  busy  part  of  the  irrigatior 
season,  most  canals  carry  a surplus  which  is  allowed  to  flow  through 
or  over,  waste-gates  and  return  to  the  natural  stream.  The  stock 
holder  of  a canal  company  prefers  to  waste  a part  of  his  allowanc( 
rather  than  wait  until  an  additional  supply  can  be  turned  in  at  th( 
headgate  miles  away  from  his  farm.  Hence  it  follows  that  during  th( 
first  and  last  part  of  the  irrigation  season,  or  during  a rainy  spell,  oon 
siderably  more  water  is  allowed  to  flow  through  the  canal  than  is  util 
ized.  In  determining  the  duty  of  water  under  canals  it  was  not  prac 
ticable  to  measure  losses  of  this  nature.  Each  canal  was  measure! 
daily  at  some  suitable  point  near  the  head  and  the  flow  expressed  ir 
acre-feet.  It  will  be  remembered  that  an  acre-foot  is  the  quantity  o 
water  which  will  cover  an  acre  one  foot  deep.  When  the  flow  of  { 
canal  is  given  in  acre-feet  it  can  be  readily  changed  into  miners 
inches  by  multiplying  the  former  by  20.  This  method  is  not  quite 
exact  but  will  answer  for  all  practical  purposes.  In  one  of  the  accom 
panying  tables  the  flow  of  the  Big  Ditch  in  Yellowstone  oounty  or 
July  22,  1902,  is  given  as  710  8-10  acre-feet.  Multiplying  710  8-10  bj 
20  gives  1421b  miners’  inches.  The  exact  number  is  14,386  miners 
inches. 

DUTY  OP  WATER  UNDER  THE  BIG  DITCH,  YELLOWSTONE  COUNT 
The  canal  now  known  as  The  Big  Ditch  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  state.  I 
was  begun  in  1882  by  the  Minnesota  and  Montana  Land  and  Improvement  Com 
pany  and  completed  several  years  later  at  a total  cost  of  $110,(XX).  The  canal,  a 
originally  built,  was  to  be  30  feet  on  the  bottom  over  the  upper  portion,  with  sid‘ 
slopes  of  1 to  1,  a water  depth  of  3 feet  and  grade  of  234  P®**  nnl®- 

The  headgates  and  diversion  dam  of  this  canal  are  located  on  a branch  o 
Yellowstone  river,  below  the  Rapids  and  about  11  miles  above  Park  City.  Th 
lower  terminus  is  near  the  city  of  Billings,  39  miles  distant.  There  are  no  diver 
sions  on  the  upper  portion  of  the  canal  and  the  upper  rating  flume  was  in  consequ 
ence  located  at  Tilden’s  rauch,  about  five  miles  below  the  head.  Tne  daily  dis 
c targe  of  the  canal  at  this  point  has  been  determined  for  the  past  three  season', 
The  following  table  represents  the  total  volumes  passing  this  point  expressed  it 
acre-feet  for  the  year  named,  the  respective  areas  under  irrigation,  the  depth  o 
water  applied  and  the  duty  of  water  in  acres  per  miner’s  inch: 


YEAR 

ACRE- FEET. 

ACRES. 

DEPFH  IN  FEET. 

ACRES 

PER  miner’s, 
INCH. 

1900 

46.995 

i 

1 . . 1 

1901 

46,507 

18,144  i 

[ 2.56 

2.13 

1902 

73,ia5 

20,0.38 

1 3.65  1 

1.90 

"MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION.  . ..  39 


• The  total  volumes  carried  in  1900  and  1901  are  about  equal/  'The"  canal  was 
jlarged  before  the  beginning  of  the  past  season  (1902)  and  as  is  shown  by  the 
•regoing  table  the  volume  was  much  increased.  Part  of  this  supply  was  wasted, 
otwithstanding  the  quantities  of  water  wasted  the  average  duty  of  water  over 
30ut  20, (XX)  acres  in  Yellowstone  county  for  the  years  3901  and  1902  was  at  the 
:te  of  one-half  a miner’s  inch  per  acre. 

In  order  to  familiarize  the  irrigators  with  the  various  units  used  in  irrigation 
le  daily  discharge  of  The  Big  Ditch  for  1901  and  1902  is  given  in  the  following 
ibles  in  three  ways,  viz:  in  cubic  feet  per  second,  Montona  miners’  inches  and  in 
;re-feet:  ^ 


^BLE  SHOWING  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  BIG  DITCH  AT  TILDEN’S  RANCH,  YELLOW- 
STONE COUNTY,  MONTANA,  FOR  THE  SEASON  OF  1901, 


Cu.  ft. 

May. 

Miner’s  Acre 

Cu.  ft. 

June. 

Miner’s 

Acre 

Cu.  ft. 

July. 

Miner’s 

Acre 

Cu.  ft. 

August. 

Miner’s 

Acre 

per  sec. 

inches 

feet 

per  sec. 

inches 

feet 

per  sec. 

inches 

feet 

per  sec, 

, inches- 

feet 

174 

6960 

345.1 

267 

10680 

529.5 

246 

9840 

487.9 



174 

6960 

345.1 

256 

10240 

507.7 

246 

9840 

487.9 

i .... 

174 

6960 

345.1 

225 

9000 

446.2 

246 

9840 

487.9 

: . • • • 

174 

6960 

345.1 

252 

10080 

499.8 

246 

9840 

487.9 

> .... 

174 

6960 

345.1 

277 

11080 

549.3 

236 

9440 

468.1 

i .... 

174 

6960 

345.1 

267 

10680 

529.5 

236 

9440 

468.1 

174 

6960 

345.1 

277 

11080 

549.3 

236 

9440 

468.1 

174 

6960 

345.1 

288 

11520 

571.2 

225 

9000 

446.2 

174 

6960 

345.1 

288 

11520 

571.2 

225 

9000 

446.2 

)i :::: 

174 

6960 

345.1 

288 

11520 

571.2 

225 

9000 

446.2 

1 

174 

6960 

345.1 

299 

11960 

593.0 

225 

9000 

446.2 

>: 

174 

6960 

345.1 

299 

11960 

593.0 

215 

8600 

426.4 

;! 

184 

7360 

364.9 

299 

11960 

593.0 

215 

8600 

426.4 

174 

6960 

345  .'i 

184 

7360 

364.9 

299 

1196) 

593.0 

257 

10280 

509.7 

•i  174 

6960 

345.1 

164 

656) 

325.3 

288 

11520 

571.2 

257 

10280 

509.7 

;l  174 

6960 

345.1 

164 

6560 

325.3 

267 

10680 

529.5 

246 

9840 

487.9 

■ 174 

6960 

345.1 

164 

6560 

325.3 

267 

10680 

529.5 

246 

9840 

487.9 

1 174 

6960 

345.1 

164 

6560 

325.3 

. 257 

10280 

509.7 

246 

9840 

487.9 

» 174 

6960 

345. 1 

143 

5720 

283.6 

252 

10C80 

499.8 

236 

9440 

468.1 

1 174 

6960 

345.1 

143 

5720 

283.6 

242 

9680 

480.0 

236 

9440 

468.1 

174 

6960 

345.1 

143 

5720 

283.6 

232 

9280 

460.1 

236 

9440 

468.1 

1 174 

6960 

345.1 

112 

4480 

222.1 

236 

9440 

438.1 

236 

9440 

468.1 

: 174 

6960 

345.1 

112 

4480 

222.1 

242 

9680 

480.0 

267 

10680 

529.5 

174 

6960 

345.1 

112 

4480 

222.1 

246 

9840 

487.9 

257 

10280 

509.7 

• 174 

6960 

345.1 

91 

3640 

180.5 

246 

9840 

487.9 

! 236 

9440 

468.1 

1 174 

6960 

345.1 

91 

3640 

180.5 

246 

9840 

487.9 

I 236 

9440 

468.1 

174 

6960 

345.1 

225 

9000 

446.3 

257 

10280 

509.7 

1 194 

7760 

384.7 

174 

6960 

345.1 

225 

9000 

446.3 

267 

10680 

529.5 

184 

7360 

364.9 

' 174 

6960 

845.1 

246 

9840 

487.9 

267 

10680 

529.5 

174 

6960 

345.1 

' 174 

6990 

345.1 

277 

11080 

549.4 

255 

10200 

505.7 

164 

6560 

325.3 

174 

6960 

345.1 

242 

9680 

480.0 

164 

6560 

325.3 

Totals 

6211.8 

9980.5 

16243.9 

14070.6 

Summary  .showing  the  amount  of  water  applied  to  irrigated  lands  under  The 


g Ditch  for  the  season  of  1901: 

Duration  of  irrigation  season  (May  14  to  Aug.  31) 110  days. 

Area  irrigated 18.144  acres. 

Water  diverted , 46,507  acre  feet. 

Average  depth  of  water  applied 2.56  feet. 


Drag  ram  shotyin^  the  f/me  of  irr/gaf/on  one/  tAe.  c/e/o^/f  ofryaZ-cr  usee/  f/'om  t/>e  9/ff  D/^eh,  T/7den‘s  f^artc/f. 


uoi^vBiJji  s-^uassjc/d J V 3JV pi(09  'f/vyufvJs^ua^auc/dJ  Va>JVj>9LfO^.'Vi^ 

y^uocu  (^ova  p a i {dd  v ua^vM  jo  i^^c/dp  Su/mol^?  uyyjSv/Q 


PTjATPi 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


41 


’ABLE  SHOWING  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  BIG  DITCH  AT  TILDEN’S  RANCH,  YELLOW- 
STONE COUNTY,  MONTANA,  FOR  THE  SEASON  OF  1902. 


May. 

June. 

July. 

August. 

September. 

• 6 

^ • 

P • 

• d 

^ • 

P • 

• 6 

jn  . 

© . 

• 6 

't-l  ^ 

^ . 

© . 

.S  c;) 

s.a 

Aci 

feet 

0^ 

l-S 

S.2 

Ac] 

feet 

P is 
0^ 

s.a 

Aci 

feet 

a '1 
0^ 

© 2 
.a  0 
s.a 

Aci 

feet 

P ir' 
0 ^ 

s.a 

Aci 

feet 

1 

338.1 

13524 

670.6 

272.3 

10892 

540.1 

293.9 

11756 

582.9 

269.9 

10796 

535.3 

9 

254.4 

10176 

504.6 

260.4 

10416 

516.5 

290.3 

11612 

575.8 

‘269.9 

10796 

535 . 3 

3 

278.3 

11132 

552.0 

260.4 

10416 

516.5 

293.9 

11756 

582.9 

258.0 

10320 

511.7 

4 

104.9 

4196 

208.0 

^8.3 

11132 

552.0 

286.7 

11468 

568.6 

248.4 

9938 

492.7 

5 

284.3 

11372 

544.0 

293.9 

11756 

582.9 

236.4 

9456 

468.9 

6 

278.3 

11132 

552.0 

293.9 

11756 

582.9 

234.1 

9364 

464.3 

7 

278.3 

11132 

552.0 

286.7 

11468 

568.6 

234.1 

9364 

464.3 

8 

266.3 

10652 

528.2 

266.3 

10652 

528.1 

293.9 

11756 

582.9 

226.9 

9076 

450.0 

9 

293.9 

11756 

582.9 

284.3 

11372 

544.0 

290.3 

11652 

575.8 

222  1 

8884 

540.5 

0 

302.2 

12088 

599.4 

320.2 

12808 

635.1 

293.9 

11756 

582.9 

214;  9 

8596 

426.2 

1 

310.6 

12424 

616.0 

346.5 

13860 

687.2 

286.7 

11468 

568.6 

210.1 

8404 

416.7 

2 

320.2 

12808 

635.1 

332.1 

13284 

658.7 

284.3 

11322 

544.0 

200.6 

8024 

397.8 

3 

314.2 

1‘2568 

623.2 

310.6 

12424 

616.0 

293.9 

11756 

582.9 

197.6 

7904 

391.9 

4 

ieiie 

‘64^ 

320.5 

314.2 

12568 

623.2 

317.8 

1‘2712 

630.3 

293.9 

11756 

582.9 

191.6 

7664 

380.0 

|3 

254.4 

10176 

504.6 

320.2 

12808 

635.1 

314.2 

12568 

623.2 

293.9 

11756 

582.9 

167.7 

6708 

332.6 

6 

‘’42  2 

9696 

480.8 

314.2 

12568 

623.2 

338.1 

13524 

670.6 

293.9 

11756 

582.9 

179.6 

7184 

356.2 

7 

•2:35  ^0 

9220 

467.2 

308.2 

12328 

611.3 

338.1 

13524 

670.6 

286.7 

11468 

568.6 

167.7 

6708 

332.6 

8 

263.9 

10556 

523.4 

308.2 

12328 

- 611.3 

358.4 

14336 

710.8 

272.3 

10892 

540.1 

179.6 

7184 

356.2 

9 

255.6 

10224 

506.9 

314.2 

12568 

623.2 

350.1 

14004 

694.4 

281.9 

11276 

559.1 

167.7 

6708 

332.6 

0 

250.8 

10032 

497.4 

314.2 

12568 

623.2 

338.1 

135‘24 

670.6 

272  3 

10892 

540.1 

176.6 

7064 

350.2 

1 

278.3 

11132 

552.0 

314.2 

12568 

623.2 

344.1 

13764 

682.5 

28L9 

11296 

559.1 

191.6 

7664 

380.0 

9 

272.3 

10892 

540.1 

310.6 

12424 

616.0 

358.4 

14336 

710.8 

281.9 

11296 

559 . 1 

167.7 

6708 

332.6 

3 

‘255.6 

10224 

506.9 

309.4 

12376 

613.6 

362.0 

14480 

717.9 

281.9 

11‘296 

559.1 

164.7 

6588 

326.6 

4 

‘262.4 

10496 

520.4 

317.8 

12712 

630.3 

358.4 

14336 

710.8 

226.9 

9076 

451.0 

143.8 

5752 

‘285.2 

5 

244.8 

9792 

485 . 5 

320.2 

12808 

635.1 

353.6 

14144 

601.3 

226.9 

9076 

451.0 

140.8 

5632 

‘279.2 

6 

271.1 

10844 

537.7 

290.3 

11612 

575.8 

358.4 

14336 

710.8 

286.7 

11468 

568.6 

131.2 

5248 

260.2 

7 

290.3 

11612 

575.8 

314.2 

12568 

623.2 

358.4 

14336 

710.8 

286.7 

11468 

568.6 

137.8 

5512 

273.3 

8 

‘286.7 

11468 

568.6 

317.8 

12712 

630.3 

200.6 

8024 

397.8 

‘293.9 

11756 

582.9 

1‘28.2 

5128 

254.2 

9 

290.3 

11612 

575.8 

278.3 

11132 

552.0 

326.1 

13044 

646.8 

298.7 

11948 

592.4 

131.2 

5248 

260.2 

0 

314.2 

12568 

723.2 

256.8 

10272 

509.3  293.9 

11756 

582.9 

298.7 

11948 

592.4 

128.2 

5128 

254.2 

1 

328,5 

13140 

651 . 5 

284.3 

11372 

544.0 

274.7 

10988 

544.8 

Total 

10197.7 

15580.1 

19134.5 

17468.9 

11442.9 

Summary  showing  the  amount  of  water  applied  to 

irrigated  lands  under  The 

i\g  Ditch  for  the  season  of  1902: 


i\g  Ditch  for  the  season  of  1902: 

Duration  of  irrigation  season  (May  14  to  Sept.  30) 140  days. 

Area  irrigated 20,038  acres. 

Water  diverted 73,165  acre-feet. 

Average  depth  of  water  applied 3.65  feet. 


Duty  of  Water  in  tKe  Bitter  Root  Valley. 

j For  three  years  investigations  have  been  conducted  in  the  Bitter  Root  Valley 
0 determine  the  quantity  of  water  used  in  irrigation  and  the  various  losses  in  its 
'■onreyance.  The  greater  part  of  the  work  was  performed  on  the  Bitter  Root  stock 
arm,  the  property  of  the  late  Hon.  Marcus  Daly.  The  conditions  on  this  farm  are 
avorable  for  such  investigations.  Through  the  co-operation  of  the  Superinten- 
dent, Mr.  P,  J.  Shannon,  and  the  irrigation  engineer,  Mr.  \!,  D.  Kippen,  accurate 
lata  have  been  secured  in  regard  to  the  area  of  land  irrigated  and  the  kinds  of 
>Tops  raised.  The  results  obtained  in  1900  were  published  in  Bulletin  No.  29  of 
his  station.  Bulletin  No.  119  of  the  office  of  Experiment  St  ations  contains  the 
r esults  of  the  investigations  made  in  1901  while  the  following  tables  give  a sum- 
nary  of  the  data  obtained  in  1902. 


42 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


DUTY  OP  WATER  UNDER  THE  REPUBLICAN  CANAL, 

• RAVALLI  COUNTY,  MONTANA. 

The  costly  headRatos  and  diversion  dam  of  the  Republican  Canal  are  located 
on  the  Bitter  Root  river  near  the  junction  of  the  tributary  known  as  Sleeping 
Child.  This  canal  for  the  first  5 miles  has  a bottom  width  of  about  12  feet  and  an 
average  depth  oP  about  3 feet  on  a grade  of  5 feet  per  mile.  For  the  next  3 miles 
it  has  nearly  the  same  slope  as  that  of  the  river,  or  over  40  feet  per  mile.  The 
canal  decreases  in  width  and  volume  as  its  distance  from  the  head  increases,  and 
is  quite  narrow  from  the  eight  to  the  twentieth  mile.  The  lower  portion  is  locat- 
ed on  a gradt*  of  eight  feet  per  mile.  In  1901  the  flow  of  this  canal  varied  from 
2.000  to  3,200  miner's  inches.  In  1902  the  highest  flow  was  3,927  miners’  inches 
and  the  average  for  the  .season  was  nearly  2.200  miners’  inches. 

Daily  discharge  of  the  Republican  Canal  measured  near  the  headgates,  April 
11  to  September  .30.  1902, 


DAY 

APRIL. 
Acre  Feet. 

MAY 

Acre  Feet. 

JUNE. 

Acre  Feet. 

JULY. 
Acre  Feet. 

AUGUST. 
Acre  Feet. 

SEPTEMBER 
Acre  Feet. 

1 

127  1 

139.7 

190.2 

190.2 

2 

133.4 

120.8 

190.2 

190.2 

3 

1,39.7 

120.8 

190.2 

190.2 

4 

1.39  7 

190.2 

190.2 

5 

139.7 

127.1 

183  8 

158.6 

6 

1,39 . 7 

127.1 

177.5 

158  6 

7 

145.7 

127.1 

18,3.8 

158.6 

8 

158.6 

1,33.5 

18,3.8 

150.9 

9 

170.9 

133.5 

177.5 

150.9 

10 

164.8 

1,33  5 

177.5 

164.8 

11 

177.5 

150.9 

1,33.5 

190.2 

164.8 

12 

177.5 

164.8 

L33.5 

190.2 

164.8 

13 

177.5 

1.39.7 

ia3.5 

190.2 

164.8 

14 

177.5 

1,33.4 

1,33.5 

190.2 

164.8 

15 

150.9 

1,33.4 

1,33.5 

190.2 

164.8 

16 

150.9 

1.33.4 

ia3.5 

190.2 

164.8 

17 

150.9 

1.39.7 

ia3.5 

190.2 

164.8 

18 

150.9 

1.39.7 

127.1 

196.3 

139.7 

19 

190.2 

150.9 

127.1 

190.2 

139.7 

20 

190.2 

150.9 

127.1 

190.2 

139.7 

21 

177.5 

150.9 

127.1 

190.2 

1,39.7 

22 

170  9 

1.50.9 

114.6 

190.2 

102.1 

23 

177.5 

150.9 

108.4 

190.2 

102.1 

24 

170.9 

150.9 

108.4 

190.2 

102.1 

25 

170.9 

1.50.9 

120.8 

190.2 

102.1 

26 

170.9 

150.9 

l,a3.4 

190.2 

102.1 

27 

164.8  1 

150.9 

150.9 

18,3.8 

102.1 

28 

1.50.9 

1,39.7 

158.6 

183.8 

102.1 

29 

1.39.7  j 

139.7 

164.8 

190.2 

00.5 

.30 

127.1 

1,39.7 

164.8 

190.2 

60.5 

31 

127 . 1 i 

164.8 

18,3.8 

DUTY  OF  WATER  UNDRR  REPUBLICAN  CANAL. 


Area  irrigated 

Water  used 

Average  depth  of  water  applied 

Duty  of  water  in  acres  per  miner’s  inch 


1901. 

1902. 

acres 

4,105 

4,850 

aCre-feet 

1.3,758 

17,856 

.feet 

,3.35 

,3.68 

. acres 

2.02 

2.22 

I 

I ^UOl^Vj.9  t^^aoiU  Ljovd 


pi/09  '//v/uivj  9^u39djc/3j  vdJV  pacfo^vu 
p9l/(/</v  JS^.VM  /O  /zyg/  6uj MOL/9  U/VJ^Vt 


PLATE  II 


44 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


DUTY  OP  WATER  UNDER  THE  HEDGE  CANAL, 

RAVALLI  COUNTY,  MONTANA. 

The  Hedge  canal  diverts  water  from  the  Bitter  Root  river  a number  of  miles 
above  the  Republican  canal.  This  canal  is  24  miles  Jong  and  irrigated  during  the 
past  season  5,420  acres  of  first  bench  lands  immediately  above  the  areas  covered 
by  the  Republican  canal.  The  upper  portion  skirts  the  river  and  consists  chiefly 
of  flumes  and  inverted  siphons.  There  are  about  five  miles  of  flumes  and  1,100 
feet  of  redwood  stave  pipe.  The  greatest  flow  during  the  season  of  1902  was  5,092 
miners’  inches,  and  occurred  June  21  and  22. 

Plate  III  shows  by  diagrams  the  quantity  of  water  flowing  past  the  upper 
measuring  flume  and  also  the  depths  of  water  applied  to  the  irrigated  land  each 
month. 

DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  HEDGE  CANAL,  AS  MEASURED  IMMEDIATELY  BELOW 

THE  WASTE-GATES,  WHICH  ARE  LOCATED  ABOUT  3,000  FEET  BELOW  THE 
HEAD-GATES.  APRIL  14  TO  SEPTEMBER  30,  1902. 


Day 

APRIL 

Acre-Feet. 

MAY 

Acre-Feet. 

JUNE 

Acre-Feet. 

JULY 

Acre-Feet. 

AUGUST 

Acre-Feet. 

SEPT. 

Acre-Feet. 

1 

151.7 

146.3 

242.1 

211.2 

189.8 

2 

151.7 

146.3 

242.1 

211.2 

189.8 

3 

146.3 

124.9 

242.1 

211.2 

189.8 

4 

146.3 

113.8 

62.8 

211.2 

189.8 

5 

151.7 

124.9 

211.2 

211.2 

189.8  ■ 

6 

151.7 

130.1 

211.2 

211.2 

189.8 

7 

135.7 

135.4 

211.2 

211.2 

189.8 

8 

189.8 

155.3 

211.2 

211.2 

189.8 

9 

189.8 

189.8 

178.5 

211.2 

189.8 

10 

189.8 

198.4 

178.5 

211.2 

189.8 

11 

189.8 

198.4 

178.5 

211.2 

178.5 

12 

191.7 

216.4 

178.5 

211.2 

178.5 

13 

216.4 

226.7 

178.5 

211.2 

178.5 

14 

46.2 

211.2 

2.37.0 

198.4 

211.2 

189.8 

15 

62.8 

155.3 

242.1 

198.4 

211.2 

189.8 

16 

62.8 

211.2 

242.1 

198.4 

211.2 

189.8 

17 

62.8 

189.8 

231.8 

198.4 

211.2 

189.8 

18 

81.9 

189.8 

242.1 

178.5 

211.2 

189.8 

19 

81.9 

189.8 

242.1 

178.5 

194.7 

189.8 

20 

81.9 

189  8 

242.1 

178.5 

194.7 

178.5 

21 

92.2 

178.5 

252.5 

146.3 

194.7 

178.5 

22 

103.3 

178.5 

252.5 

146.3 

189  8 

178.5 

23 

103.3 

178.5 

242.1 

178.5 

189.8  • 

189.8 

24 

103.3 

178.5 

212.1 

178.5 

183.0 

189.8 

25 

135.1 

178.5 

242.1 

211.2 

189.8 

189.8 

26 

14'l.8 

167.8 

242.1 

198.4 

189.8 

189.8 

27 

140.8 

167.8 

247.3 

198.4 

189.8 

189.8 

28 

140.8 

167.8 

247.3 

198.4 

189.8 

189.8 

29 

140.8 

167.8 

247.3 

216.4 

" 189.8 

189.8 

.30 

31 

140.8 

167.8 

167.8 

242.1 

216.4 

211.2 

189.8 

189.8 

189.8 

DUTY  OF  WATER  UNDER  THE  HEDGE  CANAL. 


Area  irrigated 

Water  used 

Average  depth  of  water  applied 

Duty  of  water  in  acres  per  miner’s  inch 


1901. 

1902. 

. acres 

5.260 

5,420 

acre-feet 

20,883 

31,274 

feet 

3.97 

5.76 

acres 

1.64 

1.46 

^hot^tng  the  ftme  of  irrigo^/on  ancf  the  dept^  of  i^a^er  usee/  ^ra/rj  f-he.  /Ycd^e  Ditch)  Ha/7?//tor?.  /i^on  fana 


PLATE  III. 


46 


MONTANA  EXPERIAIENT  STATION 


DUTY  OP  WATER  UNDER  THE  WARD  CANAL. 

The  Ward  canal  diverts  water  from  the  Skalkaho  creek,  a tributary  of  the 
Bitter  Root  river.  In  1902  this  canal  irrigated  3,985  acres  of  bench  lands  located 
above  the  Hedge  canal.  It  is  7 miles,  long,  has  a bottom  width  of  about  8 feet  and 
is  built  on  a grade  of  5.28  feet  per  mile.  The  greatest  flow  during  1902  was  2,800 
miners’  inches  and  occurred  June  23  to  July  3. 

Plate  IV  shows  by  means  of  a diagram  the  daily  discharges  for  1902  and  the 
average  depths  of  water  applied  each  month  of  the  irrigation  season. 

DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  WARD  CANAL,  AS  MEASURED  AT  THE  OLD  FLUME 
NEAR  THE  HEAD  ON  SKALKAHO  CREEK,  APRIL  18  TO  SEPTEMBER  30,  1902. 


Day 

April. 

Acre-Feet. 

May. 

Acre-Feet. 

June. 

Acre-Feet. 

July. 

Acre-Feet. 

August. 
Acre  Feet, 

Sept. 

Acre-Feet. 

1 

17.6 

118.4 

138.8 

51.7 

13.2 

2 

17.6 

118.4 

138.8 

51.7 

13.2 

3 

13.2 

• 118.4 

138.8 

51.7 

13.2 

4 

13.2 

97.7 

35.9 

35.9 

13.2 

5 

13.2 

97.7 

107.9 

35.9 

43.2 

6 

13.2 

107.9 

107.9 

35.9 

13.2 

7 

22.8 

107.9 

107.9 

35.9 

13.2 

8 

22.8 

118.4 

107.9. 

35.9 

13.2 

9 

51.7 

118.4 

88.2 

22.8 

6.7 

10 

69.4 

• 118.4 

88.2 

22.8 

6.7 

11 

69.4 

118.4 

88.2 

22.8 

6.7 

12 

88.2 

118.4 

97.7 

22.8 

6.7 

13 

88.2 

128.3 

88.2 

22.8 

6.7 

14 

88.2 

128.3 

81.6 

22.8 

6.7- 

15 

51.7 

128.3 

88.2 

22.8 

6.7 

16 

107.9 

128.3 

88.2 

22.8 

6.7 

17 

88.2 

128.3 

88.2- 

22.8 

6.7 

18 

- 22.8  ■ 

107.9 

128.3 

88.2 

22.8  ' 

6.7 

19 

22.8 

107.9 

128.3 

51.7 

' 22.8 

6.7 

20 

22.8  ' 

107.9 

128.3 

51.7 

22.8 

6.7 

21 

29.1 

97.7 

128.3 

51.7 

22.8 

6.7 

22 

. 22.8 

97.7 

128.3 

51.7 

22.8 

6.7 

23 

13.2 

97.7 

138.8 

69.4 

22.8 

6.7 

24  . 

13.2' 

107.9 

138.8 

69.4 

17.6 

6.7 

25 

- 13.2 

128.3 

138.8 

69.4 

17.6 

6.7 

26 

13.2 

128.3 

138.8 

88.2 

■ 17.6 

6.7 

27 

13.2 

118.4 

138.8 

69.4 

17.6 

6.7 

28 

' 13.2- 

97.7 

138.8 

69.4 

17.6 

6.7 

29 

13.2 

88.2 

138.8  ■ 

' 51.7 

17.6 

6.7 

30 

17.6  - 

88.2 

138.8 

51.7 

17.6 

6.7 

31 

107.9 

51.7 

6.7 

- 1901. 

1902. 

. acres 

3.587 

3.985 

.acre  feet 

8.626 

9.933 

. feet 

2.41 

2.49 

, acres 

2.81 

3.30 

u/  p^//dc/o  y£?  y^^/^UO/^O 


PLATE  I 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


DUTY  OF  WATER  UNDER  SKALKAHO  CANAL. 

This  canal,  which  is  also  supplied  from  Skolkaho  creek  is  about  7 miles  loner, 
of  which  '2%  miles  consist  of  flumes  4 feet  8 inches  wide  inside,  by  2 feet  8 inches 
high.  The  grade  is  5.28  feet  per  mile  throughout.  The  greatest  flow  for  the  sea- 
son of  1902  was  2,796  miners’  inches  and  occurred  July  1 and  2. 

The  diagram  illustrating  the  flow  on  Plate  V indicates  considerable  fluctuation 
in  the  flow.  ^ 

DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  SKALKAHO  CANAL,  AS  MEASURED  JUST  ABOVE  THE 
UPPER  SIPHON  AND  ABOUT  TWO  MILES  BELOW  THE  HEAD,  APRIL  8 
TO  SEPTEMBER  30,  1902. 


DAY 

APRIL. 

Acre-Feet. 

MAY. 

Acre-Feet. 

JUNE. 

Acre-Feet. 

JULY. 

Acre-Feet. 

AUGUST. 

Acre-Feet. 

SEPT. 

Acre-Feet. 

1 

30.1 

73.3 

138.6 

82.3 

61.2 

2 

30.1 

73.3 

138.6 

82.3 

61.2 

3 

30.1 

73.3 

91.2 

82.3 

54.3 

4 

30.1 

73.3 

22.3 

82.3 

54.3 

5 

39.1 

120.0 

138.6 

82.3 

54.3 

6 

39.1 

120.0 

91.2 

82.3 

54.3 

1- 

50.9 

120.0 

120.0 

82.3 

54.3 

8 

13.2 

57.7 

120.0 

120.0 

82.3 

54.3 

9 

10.1 

64.6 

120.0 

120.0 

120.0 

54.3 

10 

19.2 

73.3 

91.2 

120.0 

82.3 

50.9 

11 

13.2 

73.3 

120.0 

82.3 

120.0 

48.0 

12 

13.2 

73.3 

120.0 

120.0 

134.4 

48.0 

13 

13.2 

73.2 

120.0 

120.0 

82.3 

48.0 

14 

13.2 

73.3 

120.0 

120.0 

120.0 

48.0 

15 

13.2 

73.3 

120.0 

134.4 

120.0 

48.0 

16 

13.2 

73.3 

130.1 

120.0 

48.0 

17 

17.4 

73.3 

120.0 

120.0 

73.3 

48.0 

18 

30.1 

73.3 

120.0 

82.3 

73.3 

48.0 

19 

25.9 

64.6 

120.0 

82.3 

73.3 

48.0 

20 

25.9 

64.6 

120.0 

82.3 

73.3 

50.9 

21 

25.9 

64.6 

120.0 

82.3 

77.7 

50.9 

22 

'25.9 

64.6 

120.0 

134.4 

77.7 

50.9 

23 

25.9 

73.3 

120.0 

120.0 

68.8 

50.9 

24 

22.3 

73.3 

120.0  • 

134.4 

64.6 

48.0 

25 

22 . 3 

91.2 

120.0 

120.0 

68.8 

64.0 

26 

22  3 

120.3 

134.4 

82.3 

64.6 

61.2 

27 

25^9 

82.3 

138.6 

82.3 

64.6 

61.2 

28 

25.9 

82.3 

134.4 

82.3 

64.6 

61.2 

29 

25.9 

82.3 

130.1 

120.0 

61.2 

61.2 

30 

31 

25.9 

82.3 
" 120.0 

134.4 

120.0 

82.3 

61.2 

57.7 

61.2 

DUTY  OP  WATER  UNDER  SKALKAHO  CANAL. 


Area  Irrigated 

Water  used , 

Average  depth  of  water  applied 

Duty  of  water  in  acres  per  miner’s  inch 


1901. 

1902. 

. acres 

1,600 

1,975 

acre-feet 

7,494 

13,423 

feet 

4.68 

6.79 

acres 

1.40 

1.21 

50 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


, DUTY  OF 'WATER  UNDER  QIRD  CREEK  CANAL. 

The  entire  flow  of  Gifd  Creek  is  utilized  for  irrigation  purposes  during  the 
summer  months  by  means  of  two  canals.  Of  the!-e  South  Gird  canal  is  the  nigher 
and  irrigates  lands  beyond  the  end  of  the  Skalkaho  canal.  South  Gird  canal,  or 
ditch,  is  six  feet  wide  on  the  bottom,  two  feet  deep  and  is  built  on  a grade  of  5.28 
feet  per  mile.  North  Gird  canal  is  of  about  the  same  dimensions  and  irri- 
gates the  lands' lying  north  of  Gird  Creek  and  above  the  Ward  canal.  Daring  the 
past  sea.son  the  maximum  flow  of  the  North  canal  was  1,128  miners’  inches  and  of 
the  South  canal  1,660  hiiners’ inches.  ~ 

The  followirig  lal)le  with  the  aimompanying  diagram  represents  the  discharge 
of  South  canal  for  1902,  while  the  remaining  table  gives  the  duty  of  water  under 
the  North  canal. 


DAY 

APRIL. 
Acre-Feet . 

MAY. 

, Acre-Feet. 

JUNE. 

Acre-Feet. 

JULY. 

Acre-Feet. 

AUG. 

Acre-Feet. 

SEPT. 

Acre-Feet. 

1 

21.62 

65.26 

73.79 

56.43 

56.43 

2 

21.62 

73.79 

73.79 

65.26 

56.43 

.3 

21.62 

73.79 

73.79 

65.26 

56.43 

4 

21.62 

78.15 

56.43 

56.43 

5 

21.62 

' 82  .32 

78 . 15 

65.26 

56.43 

6 

,30.. 35 

78.15 

82  32 

73.79 

.43 

7 

.30.35 

78.15 

78.15 

73.79 

30.35 

8 

.30.. 35 

82.32 

73.79 

82.32 

.30.35 

9 

7’79 

.3(.).35 

78.15 

65.26 

82.. 32 

30. a5 

10 

8.62 

.30.. 35 

73.79 

.30.. 35 

73.79 

30.35 

11 

7.79 

65.26 

73.79 

30. .35 

73.79 

.30.35 

12 

7.79 

65.26 

73.79 

.39.17 

73.79 

,30.35 

13 

7.76 

65.26 

73.79 

47.78 

82.32 

15.51 

14 

4.49 

65.26 

82.. 32 

47.78 

73.79 

15.51 

15 

4.46 

65.26 

82.. 32 

47.78 

73.79 

,30.35 

16 

. 4 46 

65.26 

82.. 32 

.39.17 

73.79 

30.35 

17 

6.84 

76.27 

73.79 

,39.17 

65.26 

30. .35 

18 

11.70 

76.27 

73.79 

.39.17 

65.25 

30. .35 

19  ■■ 

-12.(16 

1 65.26 

73.79 

,39 . 17 

65.26 

30., 35 

20 

15.51 

65.26 

73.79 

,39.17 

65.26 

,30., 35 

21 

15.51 

65.26 

73.79 

.39.17 

65.26 

30. ,35 

22 

21.62 

73.79 

7.3  79 

47.78 

65.26 

.30. ,35 

23 

21.62 

! 73  79 

73.79 

47.78 

65.26 

,30. ,35 

24 

15.. 51 

‘ 73.79 

82.. 32 

.39.17 

65.26 

30. ,35 

25 

15.51 

73.79 

82.. 32 

.39.17 

56.4,3 

,39.17 

26 

15.51 

65.26 

73.79 

47.78 

56.43 

39.17 

27 

21.62 

65.26 

82.. 32 

47.78 

56.43 

.39.17 

28 

21.62 

73.79 

82.. 32 

47.78 

56.43 

.39.17 

29 

21  62 

82.. 32 

82.32 

5.16 

56.43 

21.62 

30 

21.62 

73.79 

78.15 

5 16 

.56.43 

21.62 

31 

' 73.79 

3.97 

47.78 

DUTY  OP  water  under  THE  NORTH  GIRD  CREEK  CANAL. 

1901. 

1902. 

Area  irrigated 

1,211 

i,.345 

Water  used 

acre-feet 

1,7.59 

4,710 

Average  depth  of  w'ater  applied 

Duty  of  watfT  in  acres  per  miner’s  inch  

1,45 

.3  50 

acres 

2..56 

2.04 

Diagram  jhomring  the  -f/r^e  of  /rr/gaf/on  an^  the  c/epf/i  o/  ivater  used  /'rom  //g  G/ra  Cree  M Dt/c/z,  ^amz/fo/r,  /iioa/ort. 


PLATE  VI 


52 


MONTANA  EXPERIAIENT  STATION. 


DUTY  OF  WATER  IN  GALLATIN  VALLEY. 

During  the  past  four  years  the  quantities  of  water  used  on  the  farms  watered 
by  the  Middle  Creek  Canal  have  been  measured.  In  1902  the  investigations  were 
extended  to  include  the  West  Gallatin  Irrigation  Company’s  canal  and  the 
Kughen,  Weaver  and  Stone,  and  Monforten  ditches,  the  combined  flow  of  which 
irrigates  about  7,800  acres.  Only  the  results  of  the  Middle  Creek  Canal  are  given 
in  this  bulletin. 

DUTY  OF  WATER  UNDER  MIDDLE  CREEK  CANAL. 

This  canal  taps  Middle  Creek  at  a point  about  3 miles  below  the  canyon,  ex- 
tends in  a northeasterly  direction  for  a distance  of  about  5 miles  and  irrigates  the 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  MIDDLE  CREEK  CANAL,  AS  MEASURED  NEAR  THE  HEAD- 
GATES,  FOR  THE  SEASON  OF  1902. 


MAY  . 


Date. 


c . 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 
11 
12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 
21 
22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 


110.4  5.4 

721.6  25.7 

1307.2  64.8 

1544.0  76.5 

1821.2  90.3 


262.7 


JUNE. 

JULY. 

AUGUST. 

(/i  • 

cc  • 

si 

.573 

Si 

.573 

<D  ■ 

S 

% w 

S2 

.573 

S g 

§.2 

§•5 

S.5 

<5=2 

1508.4 

74.8 

1262.4 

62.5 

886.8 

43.9 

1200.0 

59.4 

1161.2 

57.5 

818.8 

40.6 

1256.4 

62.3 

804.8 

39.9 

792.0 

39.2 

1684.8 

83.5 

564.0 

27.9 

801.6 

39.7 

1975.2 

97.9 

444.0 

22.0 

747.2 

37.0 

2021.6 

100.4 

388.0 

19.2 

754.8 

37.4 

2287.6 

113.4 

431.2 

21.4 

751.6 

37.2 

2426.2 

120.3 

551.2 

27.3 

795.6 

39.4 

2599.6 

128.9 

734.0 

36.4 

811.2 

40.2 

3170.8 

157.2 

788.0 

38.7 

764.8 

37.9 

3164.0 

157.2 

772.2 

38.2 

766.4 

38.0 

3150.4 

156.2 

867.2 

43.0 

804.4 

39.8 

3260.0 

161.6 

9a3.6 

46.2 

834.8 

41.4 

2422.4 

120.1 

996.0 

49.3 

710.8 

35.2 

2299.6 

114.3 

1114.0 

56.7 

842.0 

41.7 

2159.6 

107.1 

1194.4 

59.2 

833.2 

41.3 

1979.6 

98.1 

1268.0 

62.8 

862.0 

42.7 

1443.2 

71.5 

1162.4 

57.6 

792.0 

39.2 

1306.8 

64.7 

972.0 

48.2 

645.6 

32.0 

1357.2 

67.3 

893.6 

44.3 

667.2 

33.0 

1357.6 

67.3 

924.4 

45.8 

621.6 

30.8 

1807.6 

89.6 

936.4 

46.4 

619.6 

30.7 

2510.8 

124.7 

958.8 

47.5 

350.0 

17.3 

2663.2 

132.0 

996.8 

49.4 

2548.4 

126.3 

1001.2 

49.6 

2387.6 

118.4 

936.8 

46.4 

2167.2 

107.4 

878.0 

43.5 

1466.4 

72.7 

854.8 

42.3 

1372.8 

68.0 

844.8 

41.9 

1420.4 

70.4 

919.2 

45.6 

909.2 

45.0 

3.094.3 

1,363.0 

856.6 

OA^f'a/»  t/>e  ^/ne  of //'r/^a/yp/r  o/7c/  f//e  cfepf//  of^  ^er/’er  usbc/  from /^e  'Micf<//e  Creek  Ca/to/j 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


58 


PLATE  VII. 


54 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


farms  south-west  of  Bozeman,  including  that  of  the  Experiment  Station.  In  the 
spring  of  1899  a rating  station  was  established  just  below  the  main  headgates  and 
the  daily  discharge  has  been  determined  for  four  successive  seasons.  In  1899  the 
area  irrigated  was  obtained  by  interviewing  each  stockholder,  whose  statement 
was  taken  as  the  acreage  on  his  farm  watered  from  this  source.  The  same  acreage 
was  used  in  1903  but  in  1901  a new  census  was  taken  which  showed  that  the  ex- 
tent of  land  irrigated  had  decreased.  During  the  past  season  Assistant  Professor 
Baker,  with  the  aid  of  several  advanced  students  in  civil  engineering,  made  a com- 
plete plane  table  survey  of  Middle  Creek  and  the  district  irrigated  by  means  of 
ditches  from  this  source.  The  acreage  under  this  canal  as  contained  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  may  therefore  be  relied  on.  In  1899.  1135  acres  were  summerfallowed 
under  this  canal  while  in  1902  there  were  only  344  acres.  A highly  profitable 
clover  crop  being  in  nearly  every  case  substituted  for  the  unprofitable  fallow-land 

DUTY  OF  WATER  UNDER  MIDDLE  CREEK  CANAL. 


Area  irrigated 

. . acres 

1899. 

3,853 

1900. 

3,853 

1901. 

3,186 

1902. 

4,828 

Water  used 

8,074 

7,324 

7,454 

5,577 

Average  depth  of  w^ater  applied . . , 
Duty  of  water  in  acres  per  miner’s 
inch 

, . .feet 

2.10 

1.90 

2,34 

1.15 

2.19 

2.75 

2.26 

3.78 

MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


55 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction 3. 

Duty  of  water 3. 

Ascertaining  the  duty  of  wate-r 5. 

Conditions  affecting  the  duty  of  water 5. 

The  importance  of  a knowledge  of  the  duty  of  water 9. 

Amount  of  water  used 9-. 

Tables  and  i llustrations 10. 

Experiments  1-46 12-35  > 

Table  No.  1,  (duty  of  water) 36-37. 

Duty  of  water  under  canals 38. 

Big  Ditch 39. 

Duty  of  water  io  the  Bitter  Root  Talley 41. 

Republican  Canal 42. 

Hedge  Canal 44 . 

Ward  Canal 46. 

Skalkaho  Canal 48 . 

Gird  Canal 50. 

Duly  of  water  in  Gallatin  Valley 52. 

Middle  Creek  Canal 52. 


BULLETIN  NO.  44 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

AGRICllTURAL  COLLEGE  OF  MONTANA 


APPLE  GROWING  IN  MONTANA 


BOZEMAN,  nONTANA,  FEBRUARY,  1903 


1902 

The  Avant  Courier  Publishing  Go. 
Bozeman*  Montana 


riontana . Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor  ] 

James  Donovan,  Attorney  General  Jex-officio 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Publie  Instruetion  J 

N.  W.  McConnell 

W.  M.  Johnson ' 

O.  P.  Chisholm 

J.  G.  McKay 

G.  T.  Paul 

N.  B.  Holter 

J.  M.  Evans 

Chas.  R.  Leonard 


Helena 

Helena 

....Billings 
.Bozeman 
Hamilton 
...\..  Dillon 

Helena 

.Missoula 
Butte 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President Bozeman 

John  M.  Robinson,  Viee  President ; Bozeman 

Peter  Koch,  Seeretary Bozeman 

Joseph  Kountz Bozeman 

E.  B.  Lamme Bozeman 


STATION  STAFF.. 

Samuel  Fortier,  Ma.  E Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer 

E.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S Chemist 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D Botanist 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc Entomologist 

F.  B.  Linfield,  B.  S.  A Agriculturist 

R.  W.  Fisher,  B.  S Assistant  Horticulturist 

Edmund  Burke Assistant  Chemist 

H.  C.  Gardiner ! Manager  Poultry  Department 


Post  Office,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be 
addressed  to  the  Director, 

• Montana  Experuvient  Station, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 

Notice.— The  Bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to 
any  citizen  of  Montana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the 
Station  for  that  purpose. 


Montana  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No-  44  - - - - February,  1903 


APPLE  GROWING  IN  MONTANA. 

R.  W.  FISHER.  • 


Introduction. 


The  people  outside  the  natural  fruit  districts  are  fast  realizing  the 
fact  that  apples  can  be  successfully  grown  in  the  higher  altitudes  of 
this  state,  and  in  many  places  where  was  once  a barren  waste,  or 
cattle  range,  are  now  to  be  found  young  orchards,  which  are  surely 
destined  to  produce  fruit,  and  become  a source  of  revenue  to  the 
farm. 

d'lie  failures  of  the  past  in  growing  apple  trees  have  been  due  to 
one  or  several  of  the  following  reasons : 

1.  Tender  or  worthless  varieties  . 

2.  , Uncongenial  soils. 

3.  Poor  planting. 

4.  Insufficient  or  indifferent  care  after  planting,  or  many  causes 
that  result  in  failure,  in  even  more  favored  localities  than  ours. 

However  these  attempts,  although  a failure  was  the  immediate 
result,  have  been  of  very  great  value  to  the  interests  of  horticulture, 
in  that  they  have  shown  the  varieties  that  can  be  successfully  grown, 
and  the  methods  best  to  pursue  in  the  growing  of  these  varieties. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Bitter  Root  valley,  and  possibly  the 
Flathead  .and  Yellowstone  valleys,  the  question  is,  and  has  been, 


60 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


what  varieties  can  be  grown,  and  not;  what  are  the  best  varieties 


to  grow? 

From  the  experience  of  the  horticulturists  throughout  the  State, 
and  the  results  obtained  from  the  Experiment  Station  orchard  and 
nursery,  we  are  able  to  name  the  varieties  best  adapted  to  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  State,  and  also  the  methods  of  planting,  cultivation, 
irrigation,  et  cetera,  best  to  pursue.  And  with  the  present  knowl- 
edge, every  farmer  in  the  State  below  an  altitude  of  5,000  feet,  can, 
and  should,  grow  at  least  enough  fruit  to  supply  his  own  table. 


Soils  and  Slopes. 


Any  soil  that  produces  a good  farm  crop,  will  also  grow  good  ap- 
ples, if  the  proper  precautions  are  taken  to  keep  it  in  good  condition. 
Strong  gumbo  or  alkaline  soils  should  not  be  planted  to  orchard 
trees,  nor  soils  underlai.d  near  the  surface  with  hard-pan. 

While  there  is  a preference  for  a northern  slope,  yet,  the  fact  that 
one  is  not  procurable  should  not  deter  one  from  planting  trees,  if' 
he  has  a good  soil  and  other  favorable  conditions.  In  very  exposed 
and  windy  places  wind-breaks  are  undoubtedly  of  value,  especially 
after  the  trees  come  into  bearing,  as  they  break  the  force  of  the  wind 
and  prevent  the  fruit  from  falling  before  it  is  mature. 


.Preparation  of  the  Ground. 


The  orchard  site  should  be  in  perfect  condition  for  planting  before, 
any  trees  are  set  out,  as  it  is  a very  hard  matter  to  correct  evils  in 
grading  and  plowing  after  the  trees  are  in  their  places.  Some  grain 
or  forage  crop,  or  preferably  a crop  that  requires  deep  and  contin- 
uous cultivation  is  desirable  to  grow  for  a year  or  two  previous  to, 
planting  the  trees.  It  is  of  first  importance  that  the  ground  is 
properly  graded  so  that  irrigation  water  can  be  easily  applied,  for: 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  do  this  after  the  trees  have  been  set  out. 

If  the  trees  are  to  be  planted  in  a heavy  soil,  some  precautions: 
should  be  taken  to  break  up  the  subsoil  thoroughly.  Placing  dyna- 
mite in  the  holes  where  the  trees  are  to  stand  has  been  tried  with: 


1 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


61 


success;  but  a liberal  application  of  barn-yard  manure,  to  give  the 
necessary  humus,  and  deep  subsoiling  for  a year  or  two  previous  to 
planting,  would  probably  give  better  results. 

In  localities  where  the  water-level  comes  within  eight  or  ten  feet 
of  the  surface,  and  remains  for  any  length  of  time,  especially  in  the 
summer  and  fall,  drainage  is  necessary,  and  unless  this  can  be  eas- 
ily accomplished,  it  would  probably  be  a loss  of  time  and  money  to 
attempt  to  grow  an  orchard  on  such  land. 


Planting  the  Tree. 


The  ground  being  in  good  condition,  the  next  consideration  is  the 
planting  of  the  tree,  and  on  this  depends  much  of  the  future  useful- 
! ness  of  the  orchard. 

! In  all  parts  of  the  state,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  Bitter 
: Root  valley,  spring  planting  will  give  the  best  results,  and  the  earlier 
in  the  spring  after  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground  the  better. 

Have  the  holes  large  enough  to  receive  the  roots  without  in  any 
way  cramping  them,  and  deep  enough  so  that  the  tree  will  stand  a 
trifle  deeper  than  it  was  in  the  nursery.  It  is  also  a good  plan,  if  the 
ground  is  not  very  loose,  to  dig  up  four  or  five  inches  of  loose  soil 
in  the  bottom  of  the  hole. 

When  the  tree  is  in  place,  fill  in  around  the  roots  with  fine  soil, 
being  careful  that  there  are  no  air  spaces  left  near  the  roots.  Fill 
the  hole  nearly  full,  and  then  tamp  down  firmly,  and  if  the  soil  is 
inclined  to  be  dry,  water  should  be  added  and  allowed  to  soak  away 
into  the  ground  before  the  top  soil  is  filled  in,  which  should  be  left 
in  a loose  condition,  to  act  as  a mulch,  thus  preventing  undue  evapor- 
ation and  retaining  the  soil  moisture. 

Trim  off  all  broken  or  lacerated  roots,  as  a smooth  cut  heals  over 
more  re'adily  and  induces  new  roots  to  form.  And  since  a good  part 
of  the  root  system  has  been  lost  in  the  operation  of  digging,  the  top 
will  have  to  be  pruned  back  to  regain  the  balance  of  top  and  root. 
In  three  year  old  trees  that  have  already  been  “headed”  or  formed 
m the  nursery,  all  the  twigs  or  limbs  should  be  cut  back  to  4 or  5 
buds,  and  allowed  to  develope  to  their  full  capacity  until  the  follow- 
ing year.  With  a one  year  old  tree,  ie.,  with  a top  of  one  year’s  growth 


62 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


on  a two  year  old  root,  (which  is  the  best  size  tree  to  plant,  all  things  I 
considered),  it  should  be  cut  back  to  a prominent  bud,  at  the  distance 
from  the  ground  it  is  desired  to  have  the  tree  branch.  From  twenty- 
four  to  forty-two  inches  is  the  best  height  to  head  the  trees,  depend- 
ing on  the  variety,  location,  and  one’s  ideal  of  what  a tree  should  be. 


Laying  off  the  Ground. 


The  land  should  be  laid  off  in  straight  rows,  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-five  feet  apart,  and  the  exact  location  of  each  tree  deter- 
mined before  the  holes  are  dug,  as  straight  rows  of  trees  add  much 
to  the  beauty  of  an  orchard,  and  also  facilitates  harvesting  and 
spraying. 

Where  a large  number  of  trees  are  to  be  planted,  Mr.  O.  S.  Chil- 
cott,  of  Rockvale,  has  a very  good  method  of  laying  off  the  ground 
and  digging  the  holes.  He  says : “Instead  of  digging  the  holes,  I 
plow  them.  First,  I lay  off  the  field  with  light  furrows  running 
crossways,  for  guides  to  plant  by,  then  these  are  crossed  by  furrows 
running  the  way  we  irrigate,  made  with  a heavy  team  and  plow. 
Wdien  the  furrow  is  run  I take  out  of  the  bottom  another  one  by 
straddling  it  with  the  team  and  having  the  driver  stand  on  the  end  of 
the  plow  beam  and  double-trees.  This  will  enable  one  to  take  a full 
furrow  out  of  the  bottom  of  the  first  one,  making  it  so  deep  that  the 
tree  holes  are  practically  dug,  and  the  cross  furrows  indicate  exactly 
where  the  trees  are  to  stand.  Now  the  planter  can  go  ahead  without 
measuring  or  sighting.  He  simply  puts  a tree  at  the  intersection  of 
the  furrows,  and  if  the  furrows  have  been  properly  made,  the  trees 
will  be  in  perfectly  straight  rows.” 


Irrigation  and  Cultivation. 


In  most  sections  of  the  State,  irrigation  is  essential  to  the  best  re- 
sults, and  in  many  places  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to  get  a crop; 
and  where  irrigation  is  practiced,  the  trees  should  be  given  plenty  of 
water  during  the  spring  and  early  summer,  and  by  the  first  or  fif- 
teenth of  July  the  water  should  be  witheld.  By  doing  this  the  trees 
will  make  a normal  growth,  and  will  have  time  to  thoroughly  ripen 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


63 


their  wood  before  freezing  weather,  thus  being  better  able  to  stand 
the  cold  and  fluctuations  in  temperature  throughout  the  winter  and 
early  spring.  When  water  is  applied  it  should  be  given  in  sufflcient 
quantity  so  that  the  ground  is  moistened  deep  enough  to  reach  all 
the  roots,  otherwise  it  does  but  little  good. 

Where  “clean  cultivation’’  is  practiced,  (and  this  is  undoubtedly 
the  best  method  to  pursue  for  at  least  the  first  four  or  five  years), 
the  orchard  should  be  cultivated  about  every  ten  days  throughout  the 
growing  season,  and  especially  as  soon  after  an  application  of  water 
as  is  possible.  Until  the  orchard  is  several  years  old  it  should  be 
plowed  each  spring,  being  careful  not  to  disturb  the  roots ; and  then 
cultivated  with  a disc  or  spring  tooth  harrow  during  the  early  part 
of  the  summer.  After  August  ist  shallow  cultivation  once  in  ten 
days  or  two  weeks  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  keep  down  the  weeds 
and  retain  the  moisture  in  the  soil. 


Pruning. 


The  tree  that  was  cut  back  at  transplanting,  will  have  formed  the 
following  year  a large  number  of  small  shoots.  From  these  select 
three  to  five  of  the  strongest  and  best  shaped  limbs  (cutting  out  all 
the  rest),  and  at  the  same  time  taking  care  that  they  are  evenly  dis- 
tributed around  the  tree,  and  form  no  crotches.  After  having  decided 
upon  the  limbs  intended  to  form  the  framework  of  the  tree,  shorten 
them  back  to  within  a foot  of  the  main  stem,  always  cutting  to  a 
strong  bud.  As  a rule  the  weaker  the  growth  the  harder  it  ought  to 
be  cut  back,  as  this  will  encourage  wood-growth  the  following  season. 

The  next  years  pruning  is  done  along  the  same  line,  choosing  the 
limbs  that  are  to  make  the  upward  growth  of  the  tree,  and  shorten- 
ing the  season’s  growth  back  some,  observing  always  that  there  are 
no  crotches  or  cross  limbs  left.  The  necessary  pruning  during  the 
following  years  does  not  materially  differ  from  that  described  for 
the  second  and.  third  years. 

The  object  should  be  to  get  a symmetrical  low-headed  tree,  with 
no  crotches  or  cross  limbs,  and  without  too  much  wood.  The  best 
time  to  do  pruning  in  Montana,  where  wood  growth  is  the  first  con- 
sideration, is  in  the  winter  or  early  spring.  But  of  more  importance 


64 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


than  the  time  is  the  way  in  which  the  pruning  is  done.  Always 
make  a smooth  cut,  and  do  not  leave  stubs  sticking  out  from  the  side 
of  a tree,  expecting  them  to  heal*  over.  Make  the  cut  as  near  the 
main  limb  as  possible,  and  if  large  (from  one  to  one  and  one-half 
inches  and  above),  it  is  a good  plan  to  cover  the  wound  with  white 
lead  and  linseed  oil  paint. 


Varieties. 


Practically  all  the  varieties  commonly  grown  in  the  United  States 
have  been  tried  in  Montana,  and  from  these  have  been  selected  those 
best  suited  to  our  conditions.  Yet  even  in  the  same  locality  there  is 
much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  apples  to  grow,  either  for 
home  or  market  purposes,  and  it  is  not  the  object  of  this  bulletin  to 
attempt  to  determine  those  varieties,  but  rather  to  name  the  varities 
that  have  been  grown  successfully,  and  to  give  the  comparative  val- 
ues of  these  apples  for  home  or  market  uses. 

For  this  purpose  the  following  table,  taken  from  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  used  by  the  American  Poniological 
Society  in  the  description  of  fruits,  is  insericd  m part: 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


65 


\ 


Section  i. — APPLES.  (Pyrus.) 


Subsection  1.— CRABS.  (P.  BACCATA.)* 

[Key— Size,  scale  1 to  10:  1,  very  small;  10,  very  large.  Form;  c,  conical;  i,  irregular;  o,  oblate; 
b,  oblong;  ov,  ovate;  r,  round.  Color:  g,  green;  r,  red;  ru,  russet;  s,  striped;  w,  white;  y,  yellow, 
'lavor;  a,  acid;  m,  mild;  s,  sweet.  Quality,  scale,  1 to  10:  1,  very  poor;  10,  best.  Season:  e, 
irly;  m,  medium;  1,  late;  vl,  very  late.  Use:  c,  cider;  d,  dessert;  k,  kitchen;  m,  market.  Abbrevi- 
tions  of  names  of  places  of  origin;  Am.,  America;  Eng.,  England;  Eur.,  Europe;  Fr.,  France;  Ger,; 
ermany;  Holl.,  Holland;  Out.,  Ontario;  Rus.,  Russia;  Scot.,  Scotland.] 


Name. 

Description. 

Size 

Form. 

Color. 

Flavor. 

Quality. 

Season 

Use. 

1 Origin. 

Gibb 

6 

o 

yr 

a 

9 

e 

k 

Wis. 

Hyslop 

6 

r 

r 

a 

3 

em 

km 

Am?. 

Martha 

5 

o 

yr 

a 

5-0 

e 

k 

Minn. 

Orange 

5 

r 

y 

a 

3-4 

1 

k 

Am. 

Transcendent ) 

.5 

r 

yi* 

a 

5-6 

e 

kra 

Am. 

Whitney  No.  20 

8 

rc 

r 

m 

8-9 

em 

dkm 

111. 

Subsection  2.— APPLES.  (P.  MALES). 


Alexander 

10 

oc 

yrs 

ma 

5 

em 

km 

Rus. 

Vntonovka 

0 

OVC 

y 

ma 

7 

m 

km 

Rus. 

Arkansas  (Mam.  Blk.  Twig).... 

9 

ro 

yr 

m 

9 

1 

km 

Ark. 

Bailey  Sweet 

8-9 

r 

r 

s 

7-8 

ml 

dm 

N Y. 

Baldwin 

7-8 

roc 

yi 

m 

5-6 

vl 

km 

Mass. 

Ben  Davis 

6-9 

rov 

yrs 

m 

4 

1 

m 

Ky.? 

Bethlehemite 

5-6 

oc 

yrs 

m 

5-6 

vl 

dkm 

Ohio.? 

Bietigheimer 

10 

oc 

wyr 

m 

4 

em 

m 

Ger. 

Blue  Pearmain 

9 

rc 

rs 

m 

6 

1 

dm 

Am.? 

Bough,  Sweet 

Bullock  (American  Golden  Rus- 

8 

ov 

1 

y 

8 

8 

e 

d 

Am. 

^set) 

4 

rov 

yru 

m 

8-9 

1 

d 

N.  J.? 

Earlv  Harvest 

5-6 

ro 

ywr 

ma 

9 

ve 

dk 

Am. 

Early  Strawberry 

4 

rc 

yrs 

m 

6-7 

e 

dm 

N.  Y. 

Esopus ; 

8 

obc 

r 

ni 

10 

1 

d 

N.  Y. 

Fallawater 

10 

rc 

ygr 

m 

4 

1 

' m 

Pa. 

Pall  Pippin 

10 

roc 

yr 

m 

10 

m 

dk 

Am. 

♦Includes  such  possible  hybrids  as  strongly  manifest  Crab  parentage. 


66 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


Section  i. — APPLES 


(Pyrus) — Continued. 


Subdivision  2.— APPLES.  (P.  MALES,)— Continued. 


Description. 

Name. 

O 

N 

qq 

o 

Pm 

o 

o 

o 

p 

Pm 

=S 

o 

a; 

cs 

0) 

CO 

a3 

i-J 

H 

Fall  Wine 

7-8 

5 0 

yrs 

yrs 

yrs 

yrs 

T e 

pi 

Am.?  I 

Fr.? 

Ga. 

Mo. 

Minn. 

Eng. 

Am.  1 

Ger. 

Rns. 

Mo. 

Rns. 

Mass. 

Pa. 

N.  Y. 

N.  Y. 
Mo. 

N.  C. 
Rns. 
Out. 
Conn. 

1 AVis. 

Farnense 

rn 

TCI 

1 “O 

Q O 

in 

Cl 

Family 

5- C> 

7- 8 
.5-() 
4-() 

6- 8 

8- 9 

8 

ni 

o-*J 
cc  rt 

in 

dm 

-1 

Gano 

. 

m 

o-O 

pr 

cm 

(1 

in 

Gideon  

m 

O 

1111 

Golden  Rns.set  (N.  Y.) 

Golding  (Ainerican  Golden  Pip- 
pin)   

ro 

y 

yru 

yi’ 

rs 

M 

in 

o 

5-6 

ft 

K 

dm 

Gravenstein 

m 

0-0 

ft 

m 

CIK 

Graven  stein,  Russian 

0*0 

9 

d-6 

5 

>s  0 

Gin 

0 

dkm 

dm 

km 

km 

Haas  (Fall  Queen) 

Hibernal  

5-7 

5-7 

7-8 

5-6 

5-6 

5- 6 
7-8 

6- 7 
. 5-6 

6-7 

5-7 

oc 

obc 

gyi’ 

rs 

yrs 

yrs 

yr 

m 

em 

111 

1 

Hubbardston 

Jefferis  

m 

O-y 

W O 

1 

dm 

a 

Jonathan 

m 

O-O 
« O 

G 

1 

tl 

Late  Strawberry 

m 

m 

111 

m 

m 

m 

O-O 

j 

Cl  kin 

Lawyer  (Deleware  Red  AVinter) 

Limber  Twig  

Longfield  

Mcdiitosh 

McLellan 

ro 

roc 

i-c 

ro 

wrs 

r 

gyi- 

y 

wyr 

0-0 

5-6 

3-4 

5-6 

5-6 

in 

vl 

yl 

e 

ml 

cl 

dm 

m 

k 

dm 

McMahon  

7 JS 

roc 

yrs 

m 

0-6 

i 

in 

d 

dm 

km 

Alaiden  Blush  

f — o 

lO 

yw' 

111 

♦ >-4: 

111 

]\Iin Icier  . 

o— u 
ft 

yr 

m 

d-O 

6-8 

i 

G 

1 

1 

1 

ml 

1 

N.  J. 

Pa. 

AIo. 

N.  Y. 

N.  Y. 
AA'is. 
Rns. 
Wis. 
AA'is.? 

l\Ii.ssouri  Pip])m  

O— 1) 
6-8 
5-6 
8-9 

Q Cl 

ro 

gyi‘ 

yrs 

yrs 

yrs 

m 

m 

Newtown  Spitzenburg 

Nortliern  Spy.  

N o rt  west  er n G ree  n i n g 

OC 

roc 

m 

111 

m 

*>■  ct 

10 

8-9 

in 

d 

dkm 

km 

km 

km 

dm 

m 

km  ' 
dm 
d 

dkm 

,1 

Oldenburg,  Duchess  of 

Pewankee 

Plumb  Cider 

o — >7 

5-6 

7-8 

i>  — () 

o 

ro 

rc 

gy 

yrs 

yrs 

yi;s 

iR 

a 

m 

6 

4- 5 

5- 6 

5- 6 

6- 7 
5-6 
8-9 
5-6 

7 

1 

G 

1 

m 

vl 

e 

1 

ve 

1 

Ralls  Genet 

7-8 

oc 

rc 

oc 

ovc 

ro 

Red  Astra(*han 

Red  Canada a. 

Red  June 

Rhode  Island  Greening 

7- 8 
5-6 

8- 4 
8-9 

yrs 

i-gy 

yi' 

r 

gy 

yi* 

yrs 

m 

a 

111 

m 

-T  1 . 

Rns.  ; 
Am. 

N.  G.? 

R.  I.? 
Am.? 

r 1 E 1 

Romanite  South 

2-3 

8-9 

rc 

rc 

rc 

1 ^ 

6-7 

5-6 

7 

1 

Rome  Beauty 

m 

ml 

1 

Cl 

dkm 

Scott  Winter 

5 

__ 

l./lllO 

Shiawassee 

5-6 

7-8 

wrs 

yr 

m 

i 7-8 
} 5-6 

10 
10 
5-6 

K in 

V t. 

Mich. . 

T>n 

Smith  Cider 

o 1 
roc 

T 

Clklll 

Summer  Pearmain 

5-6 

7-8 

oc 

ro 

m 

kin 

ir  ci. 

Swaar  

rru 

gy 

m 

1 

<1 

/i 

Am. 

5-6 

roc 

^a 

< i 

A . X . 

Wild 

Tompkins  King  •• 

Twenty  Ounce • 

Vandevere 

Virginia  Greening 

8-9 

10 

5-6 

8-9 

roc 

r 

o 

o 

yrs 

yrs 

yrs 

yrs 

m 

m 

m 

111 

8-9 

6-7 

5-6 

5-6 

*1 

ml 

ml 

1 

dem 
km  1 
km  i 
in 

XI  US, 

N.  J. 

Conn. 

Del. 

Am.  . 
N.  Y. 

III. 

Minn,  c 
Am.?  , 
Ya.? 

\ .T 

Wagener - • 

Walbridge  (Edgar  Red  Streak) 
Wealthy 

6-7 

5-6 

.5-6 

ro 

oc 

ro 

gy  c 
yrs 
yrs 

111 

m 

m 

8-9 

5-6 

(5 

1 

1 

111 

1 

• dm 
m 

dkm 

dm 

White  Pearmain  

7-8 

robe 

y IS 
yr 

m 

5-6 

Willow  Twig 

.5-6 

roc 

m 

a 

111 

5-6 

7-8 

vl 

m 

dkm 

km 

dkm 

dkm 

km 

Winesap 

5-6 

rob 

1 

Wolf  River 

9-10 

ro 

5-6 

7-8 

10 

7 

111 

1 

Wis.’ 

N J.  v 

Yellow  Bellflower 

8-9 

obc 

wr 

yr 

yr 

y 

yrs 

Yellow  Newtown  (Albemarle).. 
Yellow  Transparent 

8-9 

6-7 

ro 

rc 

a 

a 

vl 

e 

N.’  A*'.  ; 

Rns.  ■' 

York  Imiierial 

8-9 

o 

111 

5-6 

1 

dm 

Pa.  ; 

> 

I 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


6T 


In  order  to  learn  the  varieties  that  are  best  adapted,  and  most  com- 
monly grown  in  the  State,  letters  were  sent  out  inquiring  of  the 
prominent  fruit-growers  in  the  several  fruit  districts,  the  varieties 
best  adapted  to  their  paricular  locality,  and  from  these  answers,  the 
prospective  apple  grower  may  learn  the  varieties  best  to  plant. 


VARIETIES. 


Yellowstone  Valley. 


From  the  Yellowstone  valley,  the  varieties  recommended  by  Mr. 
Olney  Taylor  of  Park  City,  are  in  the  order  given : 

Yellow  Transparent  Wealthy, 

N.  W.  Greening,  McIntosh  Red, 

Duchess  de  Oldenburg,  Ben  Davis 

\V  albridge,  Alexander. 

Crabs. 

Transcendent,  Martha.  - 

j\Ir.  O.  S.  Chilcott,  of  Rockvale,  says : ‘'A  great  many  varieties 

of  apples  have  been  planted  here  within  the  last  few  years,  and  prac- 
tically all  the  trees  seem  to  do  well.  I will  not  attempt  to  give  a list 
of  the  varieties  planted,  but  rather  of  those  that  have  borne  fruit. 
Those  that  have  been  most  thoroughly  tested  and  are  recommended 
for  general  planting  are  marked.”'*' 

* Yellow  Transparent, 

'AVealthy, 

October, 

Gideon, 

Okabena, 

Thompson’s  Seedling 
Fameuse,  or  Snow, 

Wine  Sap, 


Walbridge, 

Wagener, 

Alexander, 

^Transcendent, 

*Martha, 

White  Arctic, 
Hyslop. 


Crabs. 


*Duchess, 

August, 

Peter, 

Hibernal, 

Tetofsky, 

'N.  W.  Greening, 
'''W)en  Davis, 
*Gano, 

W olf  River, 
Malinda, 

Jonathan. 

'^Florence, 
Whitney,  No.  20, 
General  Grant, 


68 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Northern  Montana. 


Mr.  Peter  Denny  at  Chinook,  and  Mr.  W.  M.  Wooldridge  at  Hins- 
dale, have  given  the  varieties  grown  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State, 
and  while  most  all  the  orchards  are  as  yet  too  young  to  bear  fruit, 
yet  the  trees  have  been  out  long  enough  to  test  their  hardiness,  and 
since  their  altitude  and  growing  season  does  not  differ  materially 
from  other  sections  of  the  State  where  the  same  varieties  have  borne 
fruit,  it  might  reasonably  be  expected  that  they  also  will  mature  their 
fruit. 

Mr.  Denny  recommends  the  Wealthy,  Duchess,  and  Gibb,  and 
Transcendent  crab.  Mr.  Wooldridge  says:  '‘Apple  culture  is  meet- 
ing with  success  in  the  Milk  River  valley;  the  varieties  which  seem 
best  adapted  to  the  valley  are.  Duchess,  Wealthy,  Gano,  Alexander, 
McIntosh  Red,  Bethel,  and  crabs.” 


Flathead  Valley, 


For  the  Flathead  valley,  O.  C.  Estey  and  Mr.  J.  C.  Wood  of  Big 
Fork  have  given  the  varieties  commonly  grown  in  that  district. 

Mr.  Wood  says : “There  are  one  hundred  or  more  varieties  grown 
here,  out  of  which  not  more  than  a dozen  or  fifteen  are  satisfactory, 
and  some  of  these  only  in  favored  localities.  For  general  planting 
these  are  in  the  order  named: 

Yellow  Transparent,  McIntosh  Red, 

Duchess,  W.  W.  Pearmain, 

Alexander,  McMahon, 

Wealthy,  Aiken, 

Red  June,  ' Rome  Beauty, 

Red  Astrachon,  -Fameuse, 

Walbridge,  Gano. 

’Of  the  above  named  varieties,  the  Alexander  is  undoubtedly  the 
best  for  extensive  planting  throughout  the  valley;  while  in  the  Lake 
region,  the  McIntosh  Red  leads  all  other  varieties,  with  the  Wealthy 
a close  second.” 

Mr.  O.  C.  Estey  says : “The  following  list  includes  the  varieties 
grown  between  Big  Fork  and  the  Reservation  line,  on  the  east  side 
of  Flathead  Lake.” 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


69 


Aiken, 

Alexander, 

Babbit, 

Duchess, 

Esopus, 

Gano, 

Hubbardston, 

Imperial, 

McIntosh, 

Minkler, 

Family  Favorite, 

Newton, 

Pewaukee, 

\ 

W.  W.  Pearmain, 

Fameuse, 

Spencer, 

Sweet  Bough, 

Autumn  Strawberry, 

Shackleford, 

Northern  Spy, 

Ben  Davis, 

McMahon, 

Red  June, 

Wine  Sap, 

Rome  Beauty, 

N.  W.  Greening, 

Thompson’s  Seedling, 

Wolf  River, 

Yellow  Transparent, 

Okabena, 

Wealthy, 

Crabs. 

Delaware  Red, 

Transcendent, 

Whitney,  No.  20, 

Martha, 

Florence. 

Among  these  he  names  as 

the  best  for  general  planting: 

Aiken, 

Alexander, 

Duchess, 

Esopus, 

Gano, 

McIntosh  Red, 

Fameuse, 

Northern  Spy, 

Ben  Davis, 

Red  June, 

Rome  Beauty, 

Yellow  Transparent. 

Crabs. 

W ealthy. 

Transcendent, 

Whitney,  No.  20. 

Martha, 

Those  that  have  been  tried  and  discarded. 

are  the  Minkler,  Pew- 

aukee,  Shackleford,  N.  W.  Greening,  and  Florence  crab. 


Bitter  Root  and  Plains  Country. 

Practically  all  the  known  varieties  can  be  grown  here  with  more  or 
less  success,  and  the  question  of  best  varieties  is  a very  hard  one  to 
determine,  the  orchardists,  who  have  been  growing  apples  there  for 
many  years,  not  being  settled  upon  this  point. 


70 


MONTANA  EXPERIMEl^T  STATION. 


Such  varieties  as  King  of  Thompkins  Co.,  Rome  Beauty,  Ben 
Davis,  McIntosh  Red,  Bethel,  Delaware  Red,  Alexander,  Wealthy, 
Yellow  Transparent,  and  many  other  common  market  apples  are 
grown  to  perfection.  , 


Gallatin  Valley. 


' Over  175  varieties  of  apples  have  been  tested  in  the  Experiment 
Station  orchard  and  nursery,  and  from  this  number,  not  more  than 
S or  10  varieties  are  recommended,  at  present,  for  general  planting. 
However,  it  should  be  understood  that  the  Station  orchard  is  in  a 
very  exposed  location,  and  4875  feet  above  sea  level.  Therefore  it 
may  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  varieties  that  are  hardy  here  will 
grow  in  any  other  section  of  the  state,  with  similar  altitude,  if  planted 
in  a good  soil  and  given  proper  care. 

The  varieties  found  best  suited  to  our’conditions  are; 


W ealthy. 

Duchess, 

Yellow  Transparent, 

Okabena, 

Longfield, 

. Hibernal, 

Tetofsky, 

Alexander, 

N.  W.  Greening. 

Crabs. 

Transcendent, 

Greenw^ood, 

IMartha, 

Hyslop, 

Orange, 

Whitney  No.  20. 

Conclusions. 


With  the  foregoing  list  of  varieties  one  is  able  to  choose  intellB 
gently  the  varieties  that  are  likely  to  grow  in  any  district  of  the 
state.  The  same  varieties  that  grow  in  the  Bitter  Root  valley,  for 
instance,  are  quite  likely  to  do  equally  well  in  IMissoula  county,  - 
and  locations  with  similar  climatic  conditions;  and  likewise,  the^ 
varieties  grown  at  the  Station  would  be  expected  to  grow  in  otherj 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION.  71 


)arts  of  the  state,  similarly  located,  with  reference  to  the  altitude, 
dimatic  conditions,  etc. 

The  success  in  growing  apples  depends  upon  the  following  con- 
litions : 

Select  three  or  four  good  varieties. 

Plant  properly. 

Cultivate  and  irrigate  thoroughly. 

Prune  systematically. 

And  if  all  these  things  are  attended  to,  there  is  no 'good  reason 
vhy  apples  of  some  variety  cannot  be  grown  in  the  coldest  portions 
3f  Montana. 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction 

Soils  and  Slopes 

Preparation  of  the  Ground. 

Planting  the  Trees 

Laying  off  the  Ground 

Irrigation  and  Cultivation 
Pruning 


Table  Showing  Size,  Form,  Color,  etc 65- 

Varieties 67- 

Conclusions  


BULLETIN  NO.  45 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  OF  MONTANA 


THE  LOCO  AND  SOME  OTHER  POISONOUS 
PLANTS  IN  MONTANA. 


BOZEMAN,  nONTANA,  JUNE,  1903 


1903 

Tbe  Avant  Courier  Publialiin^  Go. 
Bozeman.  Montana 


riontana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor  ] 

James  Donovan,  Attorney  General  >ex-officio Helena 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction  J 

N.  W.  McConnell Helena 

W.  M.  Johnson Billings 

O.  P.  Chisholm Bozeman 

J.  G.  McKay Missoula 

G.  T.  Paul Dillon 

N-  B.  Holter Helena 

J.  M.  Evans Missoula 

Chas.  R.  Leonard ..Butte 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President Bozeman 

John  M.  Robinson,  Vice  President Bozeman 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary Bozeman 

Joseph  Kountz Bozeman 

E.  B.  Lamme Bozeman 


STATION  STAFF. 


Samuel  Fortier,  Ma.  E 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc 

F.  B.  Linfield,  B.  S.  A 

R.  W.  Fisher,  B.  S 

Edmund  Burke 

H.  C.  Gardiner 


Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer 

Chemist 

Botanist 

Entomologist 

Agriculturist 

Assistant  Horticulturist 

,.... Assistant  Chemist 

...  Manager  Poultry  Department 


Post  Office,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be 
addressed  to  the  Director, 

Montana  Experiment  Station, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 


Notice! — The  Bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to 
any  citizen  of  Montana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the 
Station  for  that  purpose. 


Montana  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No.  45 


June  1903 


THE  LOCO  AND  50/VlE  OTHER  P0I50N= 
0U5  PLANTS  IN  HONTANA. 


J.  W.  BLANKINSHIP. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Many  plants,  like  animals,  have  some  particular  means  of  defense. 
Some  are  guarded  by  thorns  and  prickles,  some  have  stinging  or 
grandular  hairs,  or  possess  a bitter  or  unpalatable  herbage ; some  are 
tough  or  woody,  while  still  others  secrete  deadly  poison^  for  protec* 
tion  and  wreak  swift  vengeance  upon  such  animals  as  have  the  hardi- 
hood to  eat  them.  In  many  cases  their  indigestible  nature  simply 
causes  bloat,  in  some  others  the  poisons  secreted  are  virulent  and 
deadly.  Loco  is  a narcotic  and  affects  primarily  the  nervous  system ; 
larkspur  and  death  camas  paralyze  the  voluntary  muscles,  while 
water  hemlock  and  lupine  appear  to  aff'ect  both  the  brain  and  muscu- 
lar system,  and  water  hemlock  at  least  also  seems  to  have  a corrosive 
action  upon  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  digestive  organs. 

The  annual  losses  in  Montana  resulting  from  stock  eating  these 
poisonous  plants  can  not  be  far  short  of  $100,000  and  may  even  ex- 
ceed that  amount.  Yet,  when  the  total  number  and  value  of  the 
stock  of  the  state  are  taken  into  consideration,  even  this  estimate 
will  appear  relatively  small,  being  only  about  three  tenths  of  one  per 
cent  of  the  whole  or  some  two  per  cent  of  the  increase.  * 

This  subject  of  poisonous  plants  is  becoming  of  more  and  more 
importance,  because  by  the  overstocking  of  the  ranges,  stock  are 
compelled  to  resort  to  the  more  unusual  and  more  unpalatable 
plants  for  food  and  consequently  these  cases  of  poisoning  are  becom- 


Assessed  valuation  for  1902: 

Horses,  188,621,  value,  S.5,873.8.31. 
Cattle,  751,040,  value,  .^17, 218,884. 


Sheep.  4,718,610.  value, .$10,869, 886. 
Total,  5,658,271,  value,  $48,456,601. 


76 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


ing  more  numerous,  and  because  of  the  present  tendency  of  stockmen 
to  purchase  and  fence  the  ranges  for  their'  exclusive  use,  so  that, 
while  formerly  there  was  no  disposition  to  do  more  than  avoid  the 
“poison  localities,’’  the  increased  value  of  these  ranges  and  private 
ownership  now  demand  methods  for  the  destruction  of  these  injur- 
ious plants,  so  as  to  prevent  unnecessary  losses. 

A glance  at  the  literature  of  the  subject  will  show  that  consid- 
erable work  has  already  been  done  by  the  various  Experiment  Sta- 
tions of  the  Northwest  and  more  recently  the  work  has  been  taken 
up  by  the  Division  of  Botany  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  V.  K.  Chesnut  and  several  important 
papers  have  been  published.  The  history  of  the  work  at  this  Sta- 
tion begins  in  1895  when  Dr.  F.  W.  Traphagen  took  up  the  subject 
from  the  chemical  standpoint,  being  joined  the  following  year  by 
Dr.  E.  V.  Wilcox,  the  Zoologist  and  Veterinarian  of  the  Station,  co- 
operating with  Dr.  Bird,  then  State  Veterinarian.  The  work  was 
continued  by  Dr.  Wilcox  till  1899,  when  he  went  to  Washington 
and  the  investigations  have  since  been  mainly  under  direction  of  the 
Botanist.  The  results  of  these  studies  have  been  presented  in  bulle- 
tins 15  and  22  by  Dr.  Wilcox  and  in  the  present  issue. 

From  the  investigation  of  a large  number  of  cases  of  stock 
poisoning  it  appears  that  some  95  per  cent  of  such  losses  in  this 
state  is  due  to  five  or  six  species  of  plants,  or  more  strictly,  groups 
of  related  species ; namely,  the  loco,  lupine,  water  hemlock,  death 
camas,  larkspur  and  wild  parsnip,  and  that  while  cases  of  poisoning 
by  other  plants  may,  and  doubtless  do  occur,  these  cases  are  rela- 
tively few  and  need  not  here  be  considered.  The  not  infrequently 
fatal  effects  of  alkali  on  the  eastern  ranges  have  been  largely  attribut- 
ed to  plant  poisons  and  have  served  to  swell  the  total  and  complicate 
the  symptoms. 

The  object  of  this  bulletin  is  to  present  a brief  summary  of  our 
present  knowledge  of  these  poisonous  plants — conclusions  reached 
l3y  the  field-work  of  three  seasons  and  from  a study  of  the  various 
bulletins  and  papers  already  published  on  the  subject,  in  order  that 
these  plants  may  be  recognized  and  the  conditions  under  which  the 
poisoning  occurs  be  known,  as  well  as  the  symptoms  of  such  poison- 
ing and  the  usual  remedies.  It  must  be  remembered  that  as  yet  the 
exact  symptoms  of  the  different  poisons  in  many  cases  have  not  been 
clearly  determined,  nor  have  efficient  remedies  been  found,  the  sub- 
ject being  yet  in  the  experimental  stage,  while  for  the  successful 
solution  of  the  various  problems  involved,  the  co-operation  in  experi- 
mental work  of  a veterinarian  and  a botanist  with  the  aid  of  a chemist 
or  pharmacist  is  necessary  to  secure  the  best  results  by  the  experi- 
mental feeding  of  these  suspected  plants  in  their  various  stages 
directly  to  the  animals  themselves,  noting  the  quantity  fed,  the 
resulting  symptoms  and  effects,  as  shown  by  examination  after  death, 
while  later  the  work  of  seeking  antidotes  for  these  various  poisons  can 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


77 


3 


be  undertaken.  Work  of  this  nature  is  expensive  and  can  be  per- 
formed only  in  localities  where  these  plants  grow,  while  as  yet  the 
desired  co-operation  of  men  and  means  has  not  been  secured. 

An  attempt  iias  been  made  to  bring  together  at  the  end  a 
brief  synopsis  of  the  symptoms  of  these  poisons  and  the  usual 
conditions  when  losses  occur,  in  order  that  the  stockman  may  be  able 
to  determine  the  cause  of  any  case  of  poisoning  that  may  arise. 

There  is  also  added  a bibliography  of  the  literature  of  the 
plants  poisonous  to  stock  in  America,  exclusive  of  the  Fungi,  as  far 
as  our  library  facilities  here  permit,  and  this  may  be  of  service  to 
other  investigators  and  stockmen  who  care  to  pursue  the  subject 
further.  For  the  more  exhaustive  treatment  of  several  phases  of 
the  subject,  the  stockmen  of  Montana  are  referred  to  the  bulletin 
of  Chesnut  and  Wilcox  on  the  “Stock-Poisoning  Plants  of  Mon- 
tana” issued  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  to  which  we  are 
indebted  for  figures  2,  3 and  6.  Fig.  i is  from  Vasey  in  the  Report  of 
[the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  for  1884,  while  the  remain- 
ing' figures  are  by  students  in  this  institution,  figures  3 and  4 by 
[Jacob  Vogel  and  6 by  Amy  M.  Cooke. 

I Valuable  assistance  has  also  been  rendered  by  Dr.  M.  E. 

I Knowles,  State  Veterinarian,  in  the  prosecution  of  this  investigation, 
[and  I wish  also  to  thank  the  many  stockmen  in  the  various  parts  of 
[the  state,  who  have  aided  me  in  this  work,  while  without  the  efficient 
[co-operation  of  the  railways  of  the  state,  such  work  could  hardly  have 
[been  attempted. 


I CONDITIONS  OF  POISONING. 

! 

The  investigations  here  undertaken  seem  to  show  that  stock- 
poisoning by  plants  is  more  frequent  in  certain  sections  of  the  state, 
in  certain  seasons  of  the  year  and  during*  certain  weather  conditions 
and  a knowledge  of  these  zones,  seasons  and  conditions  may  aid 
p materially  reducing  the  losses  from  this  cause. 

The  chief  poison  zones  of  the  state  are  nearly  confined  to  the 
'oothills  of  the  various  mountain  ranges  east  of  the  Continental 
Di\  ide  and  to  the  high  bench  lands  of  the  plains  eastward.  There 
las  been  little  complaint  from  the  extreme  eastern  or  western  parts  of 
he  state.  These  poison  zones  are  characterized  by  the  abundance  of 
I he  larkspurs,  lupines,  death  camas  and  wild  parsnip,  which  are  far 
ess  frequent  or  entirely  absent  further  east  or  west.  The  loco  zone 
s a well  defined  section  near  the  central  part  of  the  state,  while  the 
vater  hemlock  is  frequent  along  streams  from  the  foothills  westward, 
)eing  rare  or  entirely  absent  in  the  eastern  plains.  It  is  not  the  pres- 
nce,  but  the  abundance  of  these  various  plants,  that  determines 
hese  poison  zones.  The  death  camas  is  found  in  nearly  every  part 
>f  the  state,  but  is  abundant  only  in  certain  localities ; the  loco  weed 

i 


78 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


occurs  throughout  the  plains  region  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  | 
but  is  abundant  only  in  certain  parts  of  this  region,  where  the  poison-  j’ 
ing  mainly  occurs.  ' 

The  chief  period  of  danger  is  in  early  spring  from  April  15  to| 
June  15,  more  commonly  from  May  i to  May  15.  It  is  during  thisj' 
period  that  the  death  camas,  the  larkspur  the  water  hemlock  and  the; 
wild  parsnip  are  most  apt  to  be  eaten,  as  their  herbage  is  then  youngi! 
and  tender  and  there  is  much  evidence  to  indicate  that  they  are  farll 
more  poisonous  before  they  come  into  bloom;  the  first  two  fruit  andij 
die  earlyin  July  while  the  others  become  coarse  and  unpalatable.  Thisi 
is  also  during  the  rainy  season,  when  the  ground  is  soft,  and  the  more 
poisonous  roots  of  these  various  plants  may  occasionally  be  pulled  , 
up,  particularly  by  cattle.  Periods  of  continous  rain  cause  stock  to 
seek  shelter,  from  which  they  come  forth  hungry  and  use  less  selec- 
tion in  their  choice  of  forage,  while  they  are  apt  to  overeat  the  wet, 
rank  vegetation  and  in  consequence  suffer  from  bloat  and  occasional 
poison.  Late  snows  also  cover  the  more  edible  grasses  and  force  stock  1 
to  eat  the  taller  and  often  poisonous  plants,  like  the  large  larkspur,  the; 
lupine  and  the  water  hemlock.  Poisoning  from  loco  is  also  niore  _com-| 
mon  during  this  same  period  when  its  conspicuous  flowers  point  it  outi 
to  lambs  and  the  “loco  eaters”  and  its  green,  fresh  condition  makesj 
it  more  palatable.  The  lupine  on  the  contrary,  is  most  deadly  in  July; 
and  August,  as  it  m.atures  its  seeds  and  its  green  herbage  renders  ifi 
conspicuous  among  the  dry  vegetation,  while  it  is  at  this  period  that] 
sheep  are  apt  to  be  moved  to  the  mountain  and  foothill  pastures 
where  the  lupines  are  abundant.  There  are  also  hot  infrequent  cases, 
of  poisoning  in  the  winter  by  lupine  hay  or  slough  hay  containingi 
much  water  hemlock,  occasionally  even  by  the  dry  stalks  and  seedsji 
of  the  lupine  found  on  the  ranges.  ^ 1 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  stock  on  their  usual  pastures! 
and  under  normal  conditions  are  not  apt  to  be  poisoned  by  these!- 
plants,  even  if  abundant,  but  after  times  of  rain  or  snow  they  shouldi 
be  looked  after  and  stock  of  any  kind  driven  to  a new  range  or  when 
hot  and  hungry,  are  apt  to  eat  to  excess  unpalatable  and  poisonousji 
plants.  Hence  in  changing  ranges  or  in  trailing  stock  from  one  lo| 
cality  to  another,  it  is  necessary  that  more  care  than  usual  be  exer-ji 
cised  to  prevent  them  from  eating  these  poisonous  plants  until  thev 
become  accustomed  to  their  new  conditions.  | 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


79 


LOCO. 

Oxytropis  Lamberti  Pursh,  or  Aragallus  spicatus  (Hook.)  Rydb. 

The  White  Loco  Weed  is  a small  pea-like  plant,  six  inches  to  a 
foot  high,  with  conspicuous  white  or  cream-colored  flowers  from  a 
thick  woody  persistent  root,  and  is  fairly  well  represented  in  Fig.  i. 
The  “ White  Loco’*  is  distributed  over  nearly  the  whole  plains 
region  of  the  United  States  from  Alberta  and  Assiniboia  south  into 
Mexico,  and  from  Minnesota  and  Kansas  westward  to  the  Rockies. 
Extensive  losses  of  stock  attributed  to  this  species  are  reported  in 
New  Mexico,  Colorado  and  Montana  and  to  a less  extent  in  most  of 
the  other  states  embraced  in  the  region  mentioned.  In  southern  Cali- 
fornia and  some  other  states  the  loco  is  attributed  to  other  plants 
and  in  particular  to  two  species  of  Astragalus  (A.  mollissimus  Torr. 
and  A.  Hornii  Gray)  neither  of  which  are  native  here.  In  Montana 
the  white  loco  is  found  throughout  all  the  eastern  plains  and  is  not 
infrequent  in  the  “mountain  meadows”  up  to  8000  feet  altitude.  It 
has  not  been  found  west  of  the  Continental  Divide,  although  it  occurs 
on  this  Divide  in  the  vicinity  of  Feeley  some  ten  miles  south  of 
Butte.  To  this  species  (O.  Lamberti)  must  be  attributed  all  or 
nearly  all  the  cases  of  loco  in  this  state,  as  the  poisoning  occurs  only 
in  sections  where  it  is  abundant  and  the  other  species  suspected  are 
too  few  or  too  scattered  to  do  much  damage.  The  white  loco  weed 
is  very  unevenly  distributed  over  the  section  named  and  appears  not 
to  be  found  in  sufficient  abundance  to  be  dangerous  except  in  the 
central  “loco  zone”  extending  from  Livingston  to  Billings  and  from 
the  mountains  on  the  south,  northward  to  the  Musselshell,  and 
around  the  Little  Belt  and  Highwood  Mountains.  Reports  of  loco 
have  come  from  a few  other  localities  in  the  state,  but  nowhere  else 
have  losses  from  this  cause  been  heavy  and  constant.  Indeed,  in 
some  parts  of  this  “loco  zone”  theTosses  sometimes  average  as  high 
as  50  per  cent  of  the  lambs  produced  and  in  several  localities  the 
sheepmen  have  been  compelled  to  dispose  of  their  sheep  and  stock 
up  with  cattle.  Yet  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  loco  is  equally 
and  abundantly  distributed  over  all  this  section.  It  is  found  mainly 
along  dry  rocky  ridges  or  gravel  plains,  but  exhibits  great  capacity 
for  growing  in  nearly  every  kind  of  soil.  Over  much  of  this  area 
the  traveler  will  look  in  vain  for  a single  specimen,  while  in  other 
localities  of  similar  soil,  perhaps  immediately  adjacent,  the  plains  will 
be  white  with  its  conspicuous  flowers.  This  irregularity  of  distribu- 
tion may  be  due  in  part  to  the  difference  in  soil,  but  must  be  mainly 
attributed  to  the  fact  that  it  is  a relatively  recent  introduction  into 
the  state  and  that  it  is  spreading  from  the  infected  centers.  There 
is  considerable  evidence  to  show  that  the  buffalo  were  the  original 
agents  of  its  introduction,  either  through  having  eaten  the  mature 
seeds  and  then  scattered  them  in  their  offal  or  from  their  habit  of  wai- 


Fig.  1.  LOCO  WEED.  Oxytropis  Lambsrti 

Natural  Size.  (l^.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture.) 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


81 


lowing  in  the  dust  and  thus  carrying  the  seeds  in  their  hair  for  con- 
siderable distances  through  their  well  known  migratory  habits.  The 
usual  presence  of  the  loco  weed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  “buffalo  wal- 
lows” and  its  not  infrequently  abundant  distribution  in  the  higher 
mountain  meadows  along  with  abundant  signs  of  the  buffalo  and  in 
situations,  such  as  the  Tobacco  Root  Range,  where  sheep  or  other 
stock  are  not  tansf erred  from  a loco  section,  tend  to  support  this 
theory. 

The  evidence  also  seems  to  show  that  the  loco  is  slowly  spread- 
ing from  the  “loco  zone”  northward  and  eastward  and  that  the  sheep 
are  now  the  main  instruments  of  its  dispersion  and  more  abundant 
growth,  both  by  spreading  the  seeds  in  their  offal  and  in  particu- 
lar through  their -tramping  in  those  seeds  where  already  distributed 
when  the  ground  is  soft  in  the  spring.  It  will  also  be  observed  that 
this  “loco  zone”  is  just  that  part  of  the  state  which  has  longest  been 
given  over  to  the  pasturage  of  sheep. 

It  has  been  the' general  experience  of  the  stockmen  in  this  state 
that  sheep  are  the  chief  sufferers  from  this  poison,  horses  frequently 
and  cattle  are  rarely  affected.  It  is  also  a matter  of  common  observa- 
tion that  it  is  the  5-oung  sheep  and  colts  that  are  affected,  more  fre- 
quently yearlings,  while  the  older  sheep  and  horses,  grazing  along 
with  the  others  are  rarely  known  to  acquire  the  loco  habit.  It  is 
also  asserted  by  the  stockmen  that  the  animals  teach  the  habit  to 
each  other  and  there  is  nothing  improbable  in  the  statement  when  we 
consider  their  imitative  nature,  particularly  in  the  matter  of  graz- 
ing. 

The  loco  is  a slow  poison  and  appears  to  affect  primarily  the 
nervous  system,  so  that  animals  addicted  to  the  habit  become  stupid, 
wander  from  the  herd,  step  high,  their  eyes  are  glassy,  their  front 
teeth  grow  long  and  become  loose,  their  coat  becomes  shaggy  and 
they  seek  the  loco  weed  and  will  eat  nothing  else  if  it  can  be  obtained. 
They  not  only  eat  the  plant  itself,  but  dig  for  the  roots  with  their  hoofs. 
They  appear  to  have  false  ideas  of  form,  size  and  distance  and  horses 
in  particular  when  they  get  hot  or  exhausted  are  apt  to  become 
frantic,  whence  the  term  “loco”  or  crazy  has  been  applied  to  the  dis- 
ease. Moreover,  the  effects  are  usually  lasting  and  no  remedy  has 
yet  been  found.  Horses  are  permanently  injured,  as  their  “crazy” 
spells  disqualifies  them  for  hard  work  and  but  few  cases  of  recovery 
from  the  effects  of  the  poison  have  been  noted.  Sheep  left  on  the 
ranges  where  the  loco  is  found  become  worse  and  worse,  their  teeth 
become  black  and  loose,  they  eat  nothing  but  loco  and  they  finally 
die  from  sheer  inability  to  obtain  sufficient  food  and  water  to  sustain 
life.  Once  the  habit  is  fixed,  if  left  on  the  range  they  never  recover, 
although  they  may  linger  along  for  several  years  before  death,  so 
that  many  of  the  stockmen  kill  all  the  animals  affected  on  the  ap- 
proach of  winter,  rather  than  to  attempt  to  care  for  such  hopeless 
cases. 


82 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


HOW  TO  PREVENT  STOCK  FROM  BECOMING  LOCOED. 

A careful  study  of  the  subject  seems  to  show  that  it  is  the  lambs 
and  yearlings  that  are  chiefly  affected— old  sheep  but  rarely  and  then 
on  ranges  where  the  loco  is  abundant  and  other  forage  scant.  Also^ 
it  is  usually  colts  that  acquire  the  loco  habit  and  the  adult  horses  are 
much  less  apt  to  become  addicted  to  it.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  loco  plant  is  in  full  bloom  during  May  and  June  when  the  lambs 
and  colts  are  just  learning  to  graze  and  the  conspicuous  white 
flowers  and  their  sweetish  taste  serve  to  attract  them,  while  the  in- 
toxicating effects  of  the  poison  are  more  easily  fixed  in  their  system. 
They  soon  learn  to  recognize  the  plant  and  to  seek  it  for  the  effects 
produced,  until  the  desire  for  the  intoxicating  poison  becomes  a 
fixed  habit,  in  much  the  same  way  that  the  opium  or  alcohol  habit 
is  fixed  in  man,  and  the  effects  are  only  more  rapid  because  animals 
know  no  restraint  and  the  supply  of  the  drug  is  often  unlimited.  The 
loco  poison  is  a true  narcotic  in  its  effects  and  appears  to  afford  cer- 
tain pleasurable  sensations  to  the  animals  eating  it,  so  that  the  desire 
for  the  drug  finally  becomes  a passion,  and  once  the  taste  for  the 
plant  is  acquired,  they  will  continue  to  seek  it  for  the  effects  produc- 
ed until  they  are  removed  from  the  loco  ranges  or  die  from  its  use. 

Several  instances  have  occurred  in  this  “loco  zone” 
where  sheepmen  have  become  discouraged  on  account  of  the  losses 
from  loco,  and  have  sold  out  their  ranches  to  others,  who  stocked 
them  again  with  sheep  and  suffered  little  or  no  loss  from  loco. 
In  some  cases  this  immunity  seems  to  have  been  due  to  the 
fact  that  only  old  sheep  were  grazed  on  these  loco  ranges,  in  others 
liberal  salting  was  claimed  to  have  prevented  them  from  acquiring 
the  abnormal  taste  for  the  loco  weed,  but  such  cases  of  apparent  im- 
munity are  exceptional  and  need  more  careful  study  to  determine 
the  efficient  cause  in  each  instance. 

If  this  theory,  that  the  loco  habit  is  contracted  mainly  when  stock  are 
learning  to  graze,  be  correct,  then  the  disease  may  easily  be  prevent- 
ed by  grazing  lamb-bands  on  ranges  free  from  loco,  at  least  till  after 
the  first  of  July,  when  they  will  have-  learned  their  proper  forage 
and  the  loco  will  be  out  of  bloom  except  in  the  mountain  pastures, 
where  no  cases  of  loco  poisoning  have  been  reported,  and  the  same  is 
true  of  the  young  colts.  It  is  probable  that  the  yearlings  affected 
have  acquired  the  habit  during  the  preceding  spring,  but  in  less 
degree  and  that  it  developed  mainly  during  the  second  season.  It 
will  hence  be  necessary  to  look  after  the  lambs  and  colts  during  the 
first  two  of  three  months  after  birth,  and  future  care  will  not  be 
needed. 

Sheep  taken  in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease  and  placed  on  good 
pasturage  free  from  loco,  or  on  alfalfa,  frequently  take  on  flesh  and 
are  shipped  East  to  be  finished  for  the  market,  as  the  quality  of  the 
flesh  itself  is  in  no  wise  injured  by  the  loco  diet,  but  animals  in  ad- 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


83 


vanced  stages  of  the  disease  will  never  recover  and  may  as  well  be 
killed  for  their  pelts,  as  it  appears  to  be  the  general  experience  of 
sheepmen  that  locoed  sheep  never  produce  offspring. 

CAN 'LOCO  BE  EXTERMINATED? 

This  question  has  often  been  asked  and  the  subject  is  coming  to 
be  of  importance,  from  the  fact  that  many  of  the  stockmen,  particu- 
larly in  the  loco  zone,  are  purchasing  large  holdings  and  fencing 
them  for  their  exclusive  use,  while  a number  of  them  have  been 
induced  to  sell  because  of  the  losses  from  the  loco,  or  have  sold  their 
sheep  and  restocked  with  cattle,  when  such  changes  were  entirely 
unnecessary. 

Burning  the  ranges  can  do  no  good,  except  possibly  to  destroy 
some  of  the  seed,  as  the  plant  has  a deep  enduring  root  from  which 
new  plants  will  arise  next  spring.  Close  pasturage  in  some  cases 
appears  to  have  destroyed  the  loco  in  small  pastures  and  on  some  of 
the  more  closely  grazed  ranges,  but  there  is  always  some  risk  that 
the  animals  will  thus  acquire  the  habit. 

At  least  one  state  has  made  a serious  attempt  to  aid  the  stock- 
man  to  exterminate  the  loco.  The  legislature  of  Colorado  passed  a 
law  in  i88i  offering  a bounty  of  $21.00  a ton,  dry,  for  “any  loco  or 
poison  weed  dug  up  not  less  than  three  inches  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground  during  the  months  of  May,  June  and  July.”  This  law 
was  repealed  in  1885,  but  cost  the  state  about  $40,000  a year  during 
the  time  it  was  in  force,  without  any  benefits  at  all  commensurate 
to  the  expense,  as  there  was  no  specification  as  to  just  what  species 
were  included  under  “loco  or  poison-weed”  and  no  system  employed 
in  eradicating  the  objectionable  plants.  Yet,  this  law  seems  to  have 
fairly  well  demonstrated,  and  indeed  was  based  upon  the  fact,  that 
loco  can  be  exterminated  by  digging  during  the  months  specified. 
This  seems  to  be  the  nearly  unanimous  opinion  of  a large  number  of 
Colorado  stockmen,  who  have  been  consulted  by  this  Station. 

Now,  while  it  is  probably  inadvisable  for  the  state  to  attempt 
the  extermination  of  loco  on  the  public  ranges,  it  is  yet  possible  and 
profitable  for  the  stockmen  to  eradicate  it  from  his  own  private  en- 
closures and  this  at  relatively  small  expense,  as  a recent  experiment 
in  Sweet  Grass  county  has  demonstrated. 

A practical  test  of  the  matter  in  this  state  was  made  by  Dr. 
W.  A.  Tudor  of  Bozeman  on  his  ranch  on  the  Big  Coulee,  thirty 
miles  northeast  of  Big  Timber.  During  the  season  of  1901  Dr. 
Tudor  lost  from  poisoning  by  loco  about  300  out  of  a herd  of  2000 
lambs.  Acting  on  advice  from  this  station,  the  next  spring  (1902) 
he  employed  two  men  for  about  a month  in  May  and  June  to  dig 
up  the  loco  plants  over  an  area  of  about  four  miles  square.  The 
plants  were  cut  off  just  below  the  crown — the  point  where  the  leaves 
arise  from  the  root,  two  or  three  inches  below  the  surface,  a narrow 


84 


MONTANA  EXPERIAIENT  STATION. 


heavy  hoe  being-  used,  and  wherever  this  was  properly  done  the 
plants  never  sprouted  again,  nor  have  new  plants  come  up  the  pres- 
ent season  (1903).  No  further  losses  from  loco  have  occurred  on  his 
ranch. 

From  this  it  appears  that  the  extermination  of  the  loco  plant, 
(Oxytropis  Lamberti)  is  perfectly  feasible,  even  over  extensive 
areas,  and  the  expense  of  such  extermination  will  hardly  exceed  10 
per  cent  of  the  losses  which  would  otherwise  occur  during  a single 
year.  A^et  it  is  hardly  possible  to  completely  exterminate  the  plant 
in  an  affected  district  with  one  year’s  digging,  as  some  plants  will 
be  unavoidably  missed,  while  others  may  spring  from  seed  previously 
scattered,  so  that  several  diggings  may  be  necessary.  Loco  should 
always  be  dug  during  May  and  June  when  in  bloom,  as  its  conspicu- 
ous flowers  serve  to  point  it  out  and,  being  dug  at  this  time,  prevents 
it  from  setting  seed. 


LUPINE. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  poisonous  nature  of  the  lupine, 
although  it  is  certainly  one  of  the  best  forage  plants  in  the  state,  if 
not  eaten  in  its  dangerous  condition.  At  least  four  of  the  native 
species  have  been  found  poisonous,  Lupinus  cyaneus  Rydb.,  L. 
leucophyllus  Dough  (Fig.  2),  L.  sericeus  Pursh  and  L.  pseudoparvi- 
florus  Rydb.,  and  it  is  probable  that  all  are  more  or  less  so.  These 
lupines  all  have  blue,  pea-like  flowers  and  bean-like  pods,  whence  the 
name  “prairie  pea,”  “prairie  bean,”  “blue  bean,”  etc.  The  roots  are 
perennial  and  often  somewhat  creeping  beneath  the  ground ; the  stems 
are  two  or  three  feet  high  with  six  or  eight  narrow  leaflets  arising 
from  a single  point  on  the  leaf-stalk.  The  more  dangeroue  spec- 
ies of  the  Upper  Yellowstone,  (L.  cyaneus)  grows  in  dense  clumps 
from  a single  thick  root,  often  thickly  scattered  over  considerable 
areas,  and  appears  to  be  spreading  rapidly.  L.  Cyaneus  is  found  in 
valleys  and  along  streams  and  its  distribution  is  almost  identical 
with  the  so-called  “loco  zone,”  fruiting  about  July  i.  The  lupines 
are  more  abundant  in  the  foothills  east  of  the  Divide,  bi\t  are  said  to 
have  caused  losses  in  the  Deer  Lodge  valley  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
Elliston  and  the  species  occur  throughout  the  whole  mountain- 
ous ' section  of  the  state.  The  principal  species  mentioned 
Lloom  early  in  June  and  are  in  fruit  some  three  weeks  later.  Sheep 
are  the  main  sufferers  although  horses  appear  to  be  occasionally 
affected. 

In  the  case  of  the  lupine  the  conditions  of  poisoning  are  peculiar, 
and  most  cases  of  such  poisoning  seem  to  be  due  to  transferring 


Fig.  2.  LUPINE. 

V2  Natural  size. 


Lupinus  leucophylhis  Dougl. 
(U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture.) 


86 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


sheep  to  new  and  unfamiliar  ranges  where  lupine  is  abundant  or  to 
turning  them  into  lupine  fields  when  very  hot  or  hungry  or  to  allow- 
ing them  to  fill  up  on  the  wet  plants  after  rains.  Sheep  on  familiar 
ranges  and  under  ordinary  conditions  can  graze  on  the  lupine  with 
impunity,  but  in  case  of  long  continued  rains  or  late  snows,  they  are 
apt  to  eat  the  lupine  to  excess  and  suffer  from  bloat  or  poison.  There 
is  a general  impression  that  they  become  immune  to  the  poison  by 
becoming  gradually  accustomed  to  it  and  there  is  considerable  evi- 
dence to  support  this  view.  Mr.  Burke,  of  Great  Falls,  reports  that 
sheep  fed  regularly  on  hay  nearly  half  lupine  were  unaffected,  wiiile 
others  eating  the  same  hay  for  the  first  time  .died  m considerable 
numbers,  and  several  similar  cases  have  been  reported.  Several  in- 
stances have  occurred  of  imported  sheep  being  turned  into  lupine 
pastures  with  fatal  results  while  the  native  sheep  in  the  same  fields 
were  not  affected. 

Enormous  losses,  more  than  a thousand  in  a number  of  cases, 
have. been  sustained  by  unloading  sheep  from  the  cars  in  transit  up- 
on these  lupine  ranges  when  the  plants  were  in  fruit.  Sheep  are 
often  poisoned  too  by  eating  lupine  hay  or  hay  containing  as  much  as 
50  per  cent  lupine,  which  has  been  cut  while  in  seed ; yet  the  same 
hay  fed  to  cattle  has  caused  no  bad  effects.  There  is  no  doubt  of 
the  poison  being  derived  from  the  fruit,  though  the  wet  plants 
frequently  cause  fatal  bloat.  Most  if  not  all  cases  of  poisoning  of 
stock  in  winter  by  plants  on  the  ranges  are  due  to  lupine. 


Stock  poisoned  by  lupine  a'ppear  to  become  blind  and  frenzied ; 
they  move  off  staggering  in  straight  or  curved  lines  and  meeting 
with  any  obstruction  will  butt  against  it  with  spasmodic  leaps,  sheep 
thus  frequently  pile  up  against  fences  or  banks  and  lie  till  death. 
There  is  often  more  or  less  frothing  and  the  head  is  sometimes  drawn 
sideways ; they  are  apt  to  fall  over  on  their  sides  and  kick  aimlessly, 
but  some  drop  dead  without  exhibiting  previous  symptoms.  There 
is  Ifftle  bloat  necessarily,  although  bloat  sometimes  results  from 
eating  the  plants,  particularly  when  wet,  or  eaten  to  excess,  and  may 
accompany  the  poison  or  may  result  fatally  without  any  effects  of 
the  poison  being  shown.  The  “craz}"  loco”  about  Ft.  Benton  ap- 
pears to  be  a form  of  lupine  poisoning. 


In  the  case  of  the  Lupines,  as  in  most  other  kinds  of  plant  poison, 
prevention  is  better  than  cure  and  a knowledge  of  the  usual  condi- 
tions of  poisoning  will  enable  the  sheepmen  and  herders  to  escape 
most  of  the  losses  due  to  these  species.  As  a general  rule  don’t  turn 
sheep  in  on  lupine  when  they  are  not  accustomed  to  it,  or  when  it 
is  wet  or  when  they  are  very  hungry,  for  if  they  fill  up  on  lupine 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


87 


alone  it  is  apt  to  prove  indigestible  and  cause  fermentation  and  bloat, 
particularly  when  wet,  just  as,  indeed,  will  alfalfa  or  clover,  in  like 
condition,  while  the  seeds  or  beans  of  the  lupine  contain  an  active 
poison  of  which  it  takes  much  less  to  fatally  affect  sheep  unaccustom- 
ed to  them  than  those  that  have  been  eating  the  seeds  regularly.  Also 
in  feeding  hay  containing  lupine,  at  first  mix  with  other  hay  free  from 
it,  afterwards  the  amount  of  lupine  contained  can  be  gradually  in- 
creased without  any  ill  effects,  but  in  any  case  such  hay  found 
poisonous  to  sheep  can  be  fed  to  cattle  without  any  danger.  It  is 
probable  that  nearh'  all  poisoning  from  hay  in  this  state  arises  from 
the  lupine  found  in  it,  but  several  cases  have  been  noted  where  the 
water-hemlock  was  so  abundant  in  hay  cut  in  low  ground,  as  to  ser- 
iously affect  horses  fed  from  it. 

Herders  and  others  charged  with  the  care  of  sheep 
should  not^turn  hungry  sheep  upon  a lupine  range  at  any 
time,  especially  when  it  is  in  fruit,  and  should  keep  sheep 
off  such  ranges  when  the  lupine  is  wet  and  should  graze 
them  there  with  care  in  times  of  early  snows,  while  in  moving  sheep 
from  a range  free  from  lupine  to  another  containing  it,  they  should 
be  allowed  to  graze  on  the  lupine  at  first  but  sparingly,  but  after  they 
become  accustomed  to  it  no  special  care  will  be  necessary  even  after 
it  is  in  seed.  Knowing  thus  the  conditions  of  poisoning,  it  is  quite 
possible  to  avoid  nearly  all  the  losses  occasioned  by  it. 


Fig.  3.  WATER  HEMLOCK. 

Vs  Natural  size 


Cicuta  occidentalis  Greene. 
(U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture.) 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


89 


— 

f WATER  HEMLOCK  OR  WATER  PARSNIP. 

Gicuta  occidentalis  Greene. 

This  plant  is  allied  to  the  cultivated  parsnip  and  resembles  it  to 
some  extent.  It  is  often  three  or  four  feet  high  and  has  a smooth, 
green,  ribbed,  hollow  stem  spreading  above  and  each  branch  termi- 
nating in  an  umbrella-like  expansion  of  small  white  flowers  (Fig. 
3).  It  arises  from  a bunch  of  thick  tuber-like  roots  which  contain 
a yellow  gummy  secretion  and  are  the  chief  seat  of  the  poison,  al- 
though the  seeds  have  been  reported  to  be  more  or  less  poisonous 
as  well  as  the  foliage  in  less  degree.  This  species  is  frequent 
throughout  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  but  other  and  equally  pois- 
onous species  replace  it  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States.  In  Mon- 
tana it  is  found  in  wet  or  swampy  places  along  streams  and  ditches 
in  the  mountainous  sections  of  the  state, occurring  but  rarely  in  the 
plains  eastward.  It  is  often  found  in  considerable  patches  in  open 
marshy  places,  but  usually  occurs  scattered  sparingly  along  streams 
and  ditches,  by  whose  waters  its  seeds  are  disseminated.  The  roots 
of  this  plant  have  long  been  known  to  be  a deadly  poison  and  have 
been  used  by  the  Indians  for  suicide.  The  ropts  and  foliage  are  also 
thought  to  be  more  poisonous  in  early  spring  than  at  other  seasons 
and  the  semi-persistent  basal  leaves  then  attract  stock  seeking  every- 
thing green  and  the  roots  are  frequently  pulled  up  or  dug  up  from 
the  soft  ground  and  eaten  with  fatal  results.  It  is  said  too  that 
these  roots  on  being  tramped  and  crushed  by  sheep  and  other  stock 
seeking  water,  exude  a yellowish  gummy  liquid,  which  floats  on  tlie 
water  and,  being  drunk  with  it,  may  affect  stock  fatally.  The 
mature  plant  is  far  less  poisonous,  particularly  when  dry,  yet  a 
number  of  cases  have  been  reported  where  stock  have  been  poisoned 
in  winter  from  eating  “slough  hay”  of  which  this  water  hemlock 
was  one  of  the  chief  constituents.  Cattle  and  horses  are  the  most 
frequent  sufferers,  but  sheep  also  appear  to  be  poisoned  occasionally, 
though  some  authors  report  them  as  immune.  This  root  is  not  in- 
frequently mistaken  for  that  of  the  edible  “squaw  root”  .(Carum 
Gairdneri  Gray)  w:th  often  fatal  results  to  whites  and  Indians 
alike. 


The  poison  contained  in  the  root  is  rapid  and  deadly,  death  often 
resulting  within  a few  hours  after  it  is  eaten,  but  where  less  of  the 
root  is  taken  the  animal  may  linger  along  for  several  days  or  even 
eventually  recover.  The  principal  symptoms  are  violent  convul- 
sions, frothing  at  the  mouth  and  nose,  excessive  urination,  shallow 
breathing,  coma  and  death.  An  examination  of  the  body  after  death 
will  usually  show  the  lungs  congested  with  blood  and  the  lining 
membranes  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  more  or  less  decomposed. 

It  is  usually  easy  to  determine  this  water  hemlock  poison  by 


Fig."4.  DEATH  CAM  AS.  Zygadeniis  venenosus  Wats. 
Half  natural  size. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


91 


the  fact  that  few  animals  get  poisoned  at  a time  and  then  always  in 
low  wet  places,  the  victim  not  being  apt  to  get  far  from  the  locality 
of  poisoning.  It  is  not  at  all  difficult  to  dig  up  and  remove  all  the 
plants  of  this  species  in  pastures  and  enclosed  ranges.  The  roots 
are  relatively  shallow,  being  rarely  over  six  inches  beneath  the  sur- 
face, and  can  readily  be  removed  with  a spade  or  hoe  and  then 
should  be  carried  away,  piled  in  heaps  and  burned  when  dry,  as  to 
leave  them  scattered  along  the  streams  only  makes  them  more 
available  to  stock.  A few  years  ago  the  water  hemlock  was  thus 
dug  up  and  removed  from  the  Daly  ranch  in  the  Bitter  Root  valley 
and  since  then  there  seems  to  have  been  no  trouble  from  this  cause. 
The  usual  remedy  employed  and  the  one  most  available  and  effec- 
tive seems  to  be  to  drench  the  animals  affected  with  melted  lard  or 
bacon  grease. 

DEATH  CAMAS. 

I Zygadenus  venenosus  Wats. 

I The  Death  Camas,  also  called  Wild  Onion,  Wild  Leek  (Alber- 
ta), and  Crowfoot,  is  an  onion-like  plant,  arising  from  a bulb  and 
having  narrow  leaves  and  a single  stem  a foot  or  so  high,  with  a 
narrow  spike  of  yellowish  white  flowers  blooming  about  June  i- 
I (Fig  4).  No  part  of  the  plant  has  the  smell  or  taste  of  the  onion 
and  the  plants  appear  singly  scattered  over  the  upland  swales  or 
! valley  slopes,  where  it  is  often  found  in  the  greatest  profusion  oyer 
extensive  areas,  which  are  white  with  its  flowers  during  the  period 
of  blooming.  It  matures  its  fruit  soon  after  blooming  and  early  in 
July  dies  down  to  the  ground  again. 

This  plant  is  native  from  Assiniboia  and  Nebraska  westward  to 
the  Pacific  Coast  and  is  found  throughout  the  entire  state  of  Mon- 
tana,  but  is  not  sufficiently  abundant  to  be  dangerous  to  stock  except 
in  the  foothills  east  of  the  divide  and  on  the  high  upland  benches 
of  the  plains.  West  of  the  Divide  it  is  scattered  sparingly  through- 
out most  of  the  region  below  5,000  feet,  but  I am  not  aware  that  it 
has  caused  any  trouble  in  this  section. 

The  chief  period  of  danger  in  the  case  of  death  camas  is  in  May 
and  June,  when  its  great  abundance  over  certain  ‘'poison  zones”  and 
its  rank,  dark-green  leaves  frequently  cause  it  to  be  eaten  to  excess 
by  the  bands  of  sheep  grazed  in  such  sections.  The  bulb  is  the  most 
poisonous  part  of  the  plant,  but  the  sheep  appear  to  be  poisoned 
mainly  by  eating  an  excess  of  the  stems  and  leaves,  as  it  is  difficult 
to  pufl  up  the  bulbs  even  when  the  ground  is  soft  from  rain  or  melt- 
ing snow  and  it  is  usually  the  case  that  several  hundred  get  poisoned 
at  the  same  time.  Sheep  after  having  been  grazed  several  hours 
on  grass  are  often  then  grazed  over  these  fields  of  death  camas  with 
impunity.  The  poisoning  usually  occurs  when  the  sheep  are  turned 
hungry  upon  these  poison  belts  and  allowed  to  fill  up  on  the  death 
camas  before  reaching  grounds  where  grass  is  more  abundant. 


Fi^r.  5.  vSMALL  LARKSPUR. 
Delphinium  Menziesii  DC. 
Half  natural  size. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


93 


Apparently  sheep  alone  are  apt  to  be  poisoned  by  this  species. 
They  first  become  stiff  in  the  legs  and  have  trouble  in  walking,  later 
exhibit  difificulty  in  breathing,  stagger,  foam  at  the  mouth  and  nos- 
trils with  a jerking  of  the  head  and  limbs  in  intermittent  spasms, 
resulting  finally  in  complete  muscular  paralysis  and  death.  The 
poison  seems  to  affect  chiefly  the  voluntary  muscles,  causing  paral- 
ysis which  finally  affects  the  organs  of  respiration,  causing  conges- 
tion of  the  blood  in  the  lungs  and  death.  Lambs  are  said  to  be  affect- 
ed by  milk  of  a ewe  suffering  from  the  poison.  The  popular  remedy 
for  poisoning  by  death  camas  is  bleeding  in  the  extremities,  usually 
the  mouth  or^ail  and  this  has  often  been  found  effective  in 
the  early  stages  of  the  poison,  but  later  it  is  difficult  to  make  the 
blood  flow.  The  philosophy  of  this  treatment  has  not  been  explain- 
ed by  veterinarians,  but  the  remedy  seems  to  be  in  general  use  for 
death  camas  and  larkspur. 


To  prevent  poisoning  by  death  camas  it  is  only  necessary  that 
care  be  taken  by  the  herder  not  to  graze  his  sheep  in  the  swales  and 
flats  where  this  plant  is  abundant,  particularly  during  May  and  early 
June.  The  presence  of  the  plant  can  easily  be  detected  by  the  darker 
green  foliage  of  the  onion-like  leaves,  which  come  up  before  the  grass 
and  its  identity  can  be  determined  by  digging  to  the  bulb,  while  the 
prominent  white  flowers  easily  distinguish  it  after  it  coincs  into 
bloom.  There  is  little  danger  of  poisoning  by  death  camas  after 
the  middle  of  June,  as  the  plant  dies  down  to  the  ground  soon  after. 
The  localities  on  the  ranges  where  the  plants  are  found  in  abundance 
should  be  noted  and  avoided  during  these  two  months. 

LARKSPUR. 

Under  the  name  Larkspur,  or  Aconite  several  related  plants  are 
designated  in  Montana.  They  all  have  blue  or  bluish  flowers  and 
rounded  divided  leaves  and  the  poison,  the  same  in  all,  is  located 
mainly  in  the  root — in  fruit  and  foliage  in  less  degree. 

The  Little  Larkspur,  Delphinium  Menziesii  DC.  (Fig.  5),  and 
D.  bicolor  Nutt.,  is  about  a foot  high  and  has  bright  blue  spurred 
flowers.  It  comes  up  in  early  spring  as  soon  as  the  snow  is  off  the 
ground  and  is  found  in  the  foothill  uplands  in  the  greatest  profusion 
and  along  the  breaks  and  hillsides  of  the  plains  eastward  and  over 
most  of  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  state  up  to  8,000  feet.  In  many 
cases  it  is  found  in  similar  situations  with  the  death  camas,  and 
blooms  and  dies  about  the  same  time,  while  its  symptoms  are  so 
similar  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  discriminate  between  the  two.  The 
roots  of  the  first  species  are  tuberous  clustered  and  only  a few  inches 
beneath  the  surface,  so  that  cattle  appear  to  pull  them  up  occasional- 
h'  .'uker  rains  when  +he  ground  is  soft,  or,  like  the  shc'.p,  where  tin  re 
is  a greac  abundance  of  the  plants,  they  appear  to  eat  iliem  to  excess 


» ' " "" " ‘*'1 


Fig.  6.  LARGE  LARKSPUR.  Delphinium  glaucum  Wats. 

Parts  V2  natural  size.  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture.) 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


95 


and  suffer  from  poison  or  bloat  in  consequence.  Yet  it  seems  proba- 
ble that  the  larkspur  frequently  suffers  for  the  sins  of  its  companions 
and  that  from  the  similarity  of  situation  and  symptoms  much  of  the 
poisoning  attributed  to  it  may  be  due  to  the  death  capias  and  the 
wild  parsnip. 

The  Large  Larkspur  (Delphinium  glaucum  Wats.)  is  much  less 
abundant  and  is  distributed  over  a much  narrower  range  of  territory 
in  this  state,  apparently  being  found  along  mountain  streams  and- in 
mountain  meadows  from. 4, 500  to  8,000  feet  in  the  region  east  of  the 
Divide,  where  in  some  places  it  is  relatively  frequent  and  its  tall  juicy 
stems  and  foliage  serve  to  attract  stock  when  driven  to  these  ranges, 
particularly  in  times  of  late  snows.  This  is  a tall  species  three  or 
four  feet  high,  growing  along  streams  and  in  shady  hillside  thickets 
and  has  light  blue  or  nearly  white  flowers  (Fig.  6),  coming -into 
bloom  in  June,  after  which  there  is  not  much  danger  of  poison  from 
this  source.  This  appears  to  frequently  cause  bloat  as  well  as  to  be 
a source  of  poison  to  cattle,  other  animals  being  rarely  affected. 

Along  with  these  species  of  larkspur  and  usually  confused  with 
them  is  the  true  Aconite  (Aconitum  Columbianum  Nutt.),  which  is 
rare  in  Montana,  but  is  found  along  streams  high  up  (6,500  to  8,000 
feet)  in  the  mountains  on  the  south  and  west  boundary  of  the  state, 
where  stock  occasionally  get  it  in  passing  across  the  range.  This 
resembles  the  tall  larkspur  in  size  and  leaf,  but  has  blue  spurless 
flowers  and  the  foliage  is  said  to  be  very  poisonous. 


Larkspur,  particularly  the  large  larkspur,  is  frequently  the  cause 
of  bloat,  and  the  animals  affected  may  or  may  not  also  exhibit  symp- 
toms of  poison.  When  the  roots  are  eaten,  or  even  considerable  of 
the  stems  and  foliage,  animals  exhibit  stiffness  in  their  legs  and  show 
difficult}^  in  walking;  they  lag  behind  and  lie  down.  There  is  a 
spasmodic  twitching  of  the  muscles  of  the  sides  and  legs  with 
convulsions  in  the  final  stages.  As  in  the  case  of  the  death  camas, 
the  poison  affects  mainly  the  heart  and  organs  of  respiration,  giving 
reduced  pulse  and  shallow  breathing,  ending  in  convulsions  and 
death.  Cattle  are  mainly  affected,  sheep  more  rarely.  The  popu- 
lar remedies  are  bleeding  at  the  extremities,  in  the  mouth  or  tail, 
and  drenching  with  melted  lard,  or  when  this  is  not  convenient,  strips 
of  fat  bacon  are  forced  down  their  throat. 


It  will  usually  be  found  possible  to  keep  stock  away  from  ranges 
where  the  small  larkspur  is  so  abundant,  at  least  during  the  early 
spring  when  it  is  dangerous,  while  in  mountain  pastures  it  is  feasible 
to  dig  up  the  large  larkspur  over  limited  areas,  as  it  nowhere  is  found 
in  any  great  abundance  lik^  the  small  species,  but  stock  of  all  kinds 
should  be  looked  after  during  periods  of  rain  or  after  late  snows, 
when  they  are  more  apt  to  get  poisoned. 


Fig.  7.  WILD  PARSNIP. 


Pteryxia  thapsoides  Nutt. 


Half  natural  size. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


97 


WILD  PARSNIP  OR  WILD  PARSLEY. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year  complaints  constantly  reach  the  Station 
of  stock  being  poisoned  on  the  high  ridges  and  dry  upland  breaks  of 
the  foothill  region  east  of  the  mountains  and  to  some  extent  east- 
ward. Investigation  has  been  made  of  a number  of  localities  of  such 
poisoning  and  stockmen  have  been  consulted  as  to  the  plants  sus- 
pected and  it  appears  that  at  least  tAvo  species  of  the  parsnip  family 
must  be  held  responsible,  Leptotaenia  multinda  Nutt,  and  Pteryxia 
thapsoides  Nutt.,  the  latter  figured  in  Fig.  7,  which  may  also  very 
well  represent  the  early  stages  of  Leptotaenia.  These  are  found 
here  on  dry,  rocky  ridges  and  dry  hillsides  in  loose  soil. 
Both  species  have  thick,  deeply  penetrating  roots  and 
send  up  a cluster  of  finely  divided  leaves  in  early  spring  before  the 
other  plants  have  come  up,  so  that  cattle  in  particular,  are  tempted 
by  their  green  attractive  appearance.  Yet,  it  is  probable  that  their 
chief  poison  lies  in  the  root,  which  often  projects  more  or  less  above 
the  surface  so  that  it  can  be  bitten  ofi:*.  The  Leptotaenia  usually  be- 
gins blooming  when  less  than  six  inches  high,  but  is  two  or  three 
feet  high  when  in  mature  fruit.  The  Pterixia  also  begins  blooming 
when  only  a few  inches  high  and  grows  finally  to  a foot  or  more. 
Both  have  small  yellow  flowers  and  can  not  be  distinguished  in  their 
early  stages  except  by  the  botanist.  The  evidence  of  the  poisonous 
nature  of  these  two  species,  while  not  conclusive,  is  so  strong  that 
care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  stock  from  access  in  early  spring 
to  pastures  where  these  plants  are  found  in  abundance. 

The  symptoms  of  this  poison  are  much  the  same  as  those  of  the 
water  hemlock.  There  is  stiffness  of  the  legs  in  walking,  froth  at 
the  mouth,  convulsions  followed  by  death,  often  accompanied  with 
bloat.  The  exact  nature  of  this  poison  and  accompanying  symptoms 
need  further  study.  These  plants  can  be  easily  dug  up  in  pastures, 
and  enclosed  ranges.  Milk  is  said  to  be  useful  as  an  antidote. 


POISONING  BY  ALKALI. 

It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  this  kind  of  poison  from  that  caus- 
ed by  plants,  with  which  it  is  often  confused.  There  can  hardly  be 
any  doubt  as  to  the  fatal  effects  of  concentrated  alkali  water  or  of 
alkali  salts  when  taken  in  excess,  particularly  by  animals  coming  in 
from  ranges  where  such  salts  are  not  abundant.  Stockmen  are 
practically  agreed  as  to  the  danger  from  this  source  and  certain  “pois- 
on ponds”  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  seem  to  have  no  other 
characteristic  except  that  of  being  surcharged  with  alkali,  but  the 
subject  has  been  but  little  studied  as  yet  and  it  is  not  always  possible 
to  distinguish  between  this  and  the  various  plant  poisons. 

In  general  the  excess  of  alkali  will  result  in  bloat,  often  follow^ed 


98 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


by  scours  and  there  is  usually  a well  marked  froth  and  a deposit  of 
an  alkali-like  substance  about  the  mouth  and  nostrils.  Sometimes 
the  effect  of  such  alkali  water  seems  to  be  to  hasten  the  action  of 
the  poison  of  the  death  camas  in  the  stomach  and  the  symptoms  are 
then  those  of  the  latter,  but  are  not  developed  before  drinking  the 
water  and  appear  to  result  from  it. 

This  poisoning  by  alkali  is  limited  to  certain  localitites  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  state,  where  there  is  much  alkali  in  the  soil  and 
Avater  and  the  poisoning  occurs  in  the  later  summer  or  during  winter 
thaws,  when  the  water  collects  in  the  alkali  flats  and  may  then  be 
drunk  to  excess  by  stock  in  need  of  salt. 

Salting  stock  regularl)^  is  thought  to  prevent  this  trouble  and 
animals  when  first  turned  on  alkali  ranges,  should  be  kept  from  the 
more  stagnant  pools,  till  they  become  accustomed  to  the  dilute  form 
of  the  salts.  The  remedy  is  simply  to  keep  them  away  from  such 
ponds  and  give  them  pure  water  till  they  recover,  or  in  case  of  bloat, 
to  treat  them  for  such. 


REMEDIES. 

As  yet,  practical  methods  for  treating  these  different  plants  pois- 
ons have  not  come  into  general  use  and  most  of  the  remedies  recom- 
mended are  in  their  experimental  stage.  All  that  will  here  be  at- 
tempted will  be  to  enumerate  the  various  remedies  proposed  or  found 
effective  in  the  given  cases. 

For  bloat  in  its  more  dangerous  form  ‘'sticking”  is  the  usual 
remedy  for  sheep  and  cattle.  This  is  accomplished  by  plunging  a 
wide-bladed  knife  directly  into  the  stomach  and  thus  allowing  the  ac- 
cumulated gas  to  escape.  The  point  where  the  incision  is  made  is 
on  the  left  side  about  half  way  between  the  hip  bone  and  the  ribs  and 
is  usually  designated  by  being  the  point  of  greatest  projection.  There 
is  little  danger  of  making  any  serious  mistake  and  animals  thus  treat- 
ed usually  recover  without  further  attention.  Horses  can  not  be 
treated  by  this  method.  The  regular  instrument  designed  for  this 
operation  of  rumenotomy  is  the  trdchar  and  canula  which  can  be 
ordered  by  any  druggist  and  will  be  found  useful  in  the  case  of  cattle, 
but  slme])  are  frequently  affected  in  such  numbers  that  the  knife  is 
the  only  resource. 

For  the  various  kinds  of  actual  plant  poison  the  remedy  general- 
ly recommended  is  permanganate  of  potassium,  which  can  be  pur- 
chased at  drugstores  in  the  form  of  reddish-purple  crystals  which  are 
readily  soluble  in  water  and  should  be  thus  given.  A teaspoonful 
of  the  crystals  dissolved  in  water  is  enough  for  about  12  sheep  or  4 
cows.  Wilcox  recommends  giving  this  with  an  equal  amount  of 
sulphate  of  aluminum  (alum)  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results. 

This  is  put  up  by  Dr.  Emil  Starz,  Helena,  Mont.,  in  conven- 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


99 


lent  lo-grain  tablets  under  the  name  of  “Ozonine”  popularly  called 
“Starz’  Tablets,”  which  are  highly  recommended  by  those  who  have 
used  them.  Some  even  report  giving  them  dry  to  sheep 
for  death  camas  poison  with  good  results.  Dr.  Starz  also 
recommends  similar  tablets  composed  of  potassium  permangan- 
ate, ammonium  chloride  and  sodium  carbonate,  which  when 
dissolved  in  the  stomach  give  off  ammonia  as  a cardiac  stimu- 
lant. Some  stockmen  in  Meagher  county  report  having  used  a di- 
lute (125  to  i)  form  of  the  sheep-dip  “Zenoleum”  (Zen- 
ner  Disinfectant  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich.)  for  bloat  and  lupine  pois- 
oning with  fair  success,  but  neither  of  the  remedies  have  been  tried 
by  this  Station. 

Of  the  more  common  'remedies  employed,  melted  lard,  bacon 
grease  or  the  bacon  itself  have  been  found  effective  in  many  cases 
of  larkspur,  water  hemlock  and  other  poisons,  and  is  worthy  of  trial 
for  all  such  poisons  except  loco.  Milk  appears  to  be  sometimes  used 
in  a similar  way.  Decoction  of  tobacco  and  a solution  of  alum 
have  been  used  successfully  for  lupine  and  Dr.  M.  E.  Knowles  recom- 
mends raw  linseed  oil  for  lupine  and  larkspur.  Bleeding  is  practiced 
extensively  for  poisoning  by  death  camas  or  larkspur,  and  is  higlfly 
recommended  by  those  that  have  tried  it,  but  this  is  of  doubtful 
benefit  for  water  hemlock,  wild  parsnip  or  lupine.  Just  what  action 
the  bleeding  has,  or  whether  it  is  of  any  real  benefit,  the  veterinarians 
appear  doubtful,  yet  it  seems  possible  that  Avhere  death  results  from 
congestion  of  the  blood  about  any  organ,  this  congestion  may  possi- 
bly be  relieved  or  prevented  from  proving  fatal  by  such  bleeding. 
Certain  it  is  that  this  remedy  is  frequently  practiced  in  the  cases 
mentioned  and  with  apparently  beneficial  results.  The  experimental 
study  of  the  effects  of  these  plant  poisons  and  their  remedies  by  a 
competent  veterinarian  is  now  imperitatively  demanded  by  the  stock 
interests  of  the  state  and,  indeed,  of  the  whole  West. 

The  following  provisional  scheme  is  offered  to  determine  the 
plants  usually  causing  any  given  case  of  poison. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  POISONS. 


CATTLE. 

Poisoned  in  low  ground:  ■ 

Convulsions,  frothing,  excessive  urination ; occurring 
mainly  in  early  spring. Water  Hemlock. 

lUcr.t.  scours,  alkali  froth;  occuring  in  late  summer  or 
during  v.-niv;  zr  thaws (Alkali.)  , 

Poisoned  on  uplands  or  along  mountain  streams: 

Fdnat  or  stihness  in  legs,  twitching  of  muscles  in  sides 
and  legs,  shallow  breathing,  convulsions ; in  April,  May  or 
June, Larkspur. 

Poisoned  on  dry  rocky  ledges,  on  high  ridges  or  on  dry  hillsides: 

Bloat,  stiffness  of  legs,  convulsions,  frothing;  in  April 
end  May Wild  Parsnip. 

HORSES. 

Poison  slow,  rendering  them  stupid,  sight  affected,  crazy 
when  tired  or  hot  Loco,  v 

Poison  rapid  in  action : 

Blind  and  frenzied,  spasmodic  convulsions;  July  and 
^ August  or  from  lupine  hay  in  winter Lupine. 

Convulsions,  frothing,  excessive  urination,  coma ; in 
low  ground;  April  and  May Water  Hemlock. 

Bloat,  scours,  alkali-like  froth ; in  late  summer  or  dur- 
ing winter  thaws (Alkali.) 

SHEEP. 

Poison  slow,  rendering  stupid,  front  teeth  long , inclined  to 
wander  from  herd;  lambs  and  yearlings  mainly Loco. 

Poison  rapid  in  action : 

Bloat,  or  blind  and  frenzied,  pile  up  against  obstacles, 
spasmodic  convulsions;  in  July  and  August  or  from  lupine 
hay  in  winter,  or  after  snow  or  rain Lupine. 

Poisoned  along  streams: 

In  early  spring,  or  from  ‘^slough  hay”  in  winter;  con- 
vulsions, frothing,  excessive  urination,  coma 

Water  Hemlock. 

In  late  summer  or  during  winter  thaws ; bloat,  scours, 
alkali-like  froth  (Alkali.) 

Poisoned  in  swales,  on  high  benches  or  in  foothill  valleys : 

Stiffness  in  legs,  convulsions,  final  paralysis ; many 
affected  at  once  ; May  and  June Death  Camas. 

Poisoned  in  foothills  or  along  breaks,  and  mountain  streams: 

Twitching  of  muscles  in  sides  and  legs,  stiffness  of  gait, 
occasionally  bloat,  final  convulsions ; few  poisoned  at  once ; 
in  May  and  June Larkspur. 

Poisoned  on  high  rocky  ledges  or  high  dry  ridges  in  early  spring. 

Bloat,  stiffness  of  legs,  convulsions,  frothing;  few  pois- 
oned at  once Wild  Parsnip. 


MONTANA  EXERIMENT  STATION. 


101 


SUMMARY. 

1.  More  than  90  per  cent  of  all  cases  of  stock-poisoning  by 
plants  in  Montana  can  be  traced  to  some  six  groups  of  plants — the 
loco,  lupine,  water  hemlock,  death  camas,  larkspur  and  wild  parsnip, 
and  most  of  the  losses  resulting  may  be  avoided  by  a knowledge  of 
these  plants  and  of  the  conditions  under  which  such  poisoning 
occurs. 

2.  The  loco  habit  is  usually,  acquired  by  lambs  and  colts 

in  May  and  June,  when  the  plant  is  in  bloom  and  they  are  first  learn- 

ing to  graze.  Old  sheep  and  horses  rarely  become  locoed,  unless 
range  is  short  and  the  loco  abundant. 

3.  The  loco  plant  can  be  exterminated  by  digging  the  plants 

with  a hoe  while  they  are  in  bloom  in  May  and  June,  cutting  the 

main  root  below  the  crown  and  some  two  or  three  inches  beneath 
the  surface. 

4.  Lupine  is  dangerous  if  eaten  in  excess  when  wet,  or  when 
sheep  are  hot  and  hungry  or  when  they  are  not  accustomed  to  it, 
and  it  is  particularly  poisonous  when  the  seeds  are  mature,  if  eaten 
in  quantity  or  by  sheep  not  accustomed  to  this  diet.  Cattle  appear 
not  to  be  affected  and  horses  but  rarely.  Under  normal  conditions 
the  lupine  is  an  excellent  forage  plant. 

5.  Water  Hemlock  poisons  horses  and  cattle  chiefly  and  may 
be  easily  destroyed  by  digging  it  up  along  the  streams  and  ditches. 
It  is  most  dangerous  in  early  spring. 

6.  Death  Camas  causes  extensive  losses  among  sheep  in  the 
spring  in  certain  “poison  zones”  in  the  foothills  and  on  the  high 
benches  east  of  the  Divide.  Herders  should  keep  their  bands  away 
from  localities  where  the  plants  are  abundant,  particularly  when  they 
are  hungry.  After  July  i there  is  little  danger  as  the  plants  then 
fruit  and  die. 

7.  The  Larkspur  is  found  in  much  the  same  situations  as  the 
death  camas  and  the  same  rules  will  apply  as  for  the  latter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Some  American  works  relating  to  poisonous  plants,  exclusive 
of  the  Fungi. 

Anderson,  F.  W.  Poisonous  plants  and  the  symptoms  they  pro- 
duce. Botanical  Gazette,  14:180.  July,  1889. 

Bessey  C.  E.  Larkspur  poisoning  of  stock.  Neb.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep. 

1898,  p.  XXVHI. 

Blankinship,  J.  W.  Poisonous  plants  of  Montana.  Proc.  5th  An. 

Sess.  Pacific  N.  W.  Woolgrowers’  Assoc,  pp.  49-54.  1902. 

Brewer  & Watson.  Botany  of  California,  1 1155;  11:183. 

Brodie,  D.  A.  A preliminary  report  of  poison  parsnip  in  western 

Washington.  Wash.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  No.  45,  pp.  5-12.  1901. 

Chesnut,  V.  K.  Some  common  poisonous  plants.  Yearbook  U.  S. 


102 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Dept.  Agric.  1896,  pp.  137-146. 

Chesnut,  V.  K.  Thirty  poisonous  plants  of  the  United  States.  U. 

S.  Dept.  Agric.,  Farmers’  Bull.  No  86,  pp.  3-32.  1898. 

Chesnut,  V.  K.  Principal  poisonous  plants  of  the  United  States.  U.  ^ 

S.  Dept.  Agric,,  Div.  Bot.  Bull.  No.  20,  pp.  1-60.  1898. 

Chesnut,  V.  K.  Pieliminary  catalogue  of  plants  poisonous  to  stock. 

15th  An.  Rep.  EUireau  Animal  Ind.  1898,  pp.  387-420. 

Chesnut,  V.  K.  Some  poisonous  plants  of  the  northern  stock 
ranges.  Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.  1900,  pp.  305-324. 

Chesnut,  V.  K.  and  E.  V.  Wilcox.  The  stock-poisoning  plants  of 
^Montana.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.,  Div.  Bot.  Bull.  No.  26,  pp.  1-150. 
1901. 

Collier,  Peter.  (Note  on  Loco)  Rep.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.  1878,  p.  134. 
Cook,  W.  W.  Pasturing  sheep  on  alfalfa.  Col.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  No.  ? 

52,  pp-  3-23-  1899- 

Eastwood,  Alice.  The  loco  weeds.  Zoe,  III  153-58.  1892. 

Faville,  Dr.  In  Rep.  Colo.  Agr.  College,  \^eter.  Dept.  Jan.  1885. 
Halsted,  B.  D.  Poisonous  plants  of  New  Jersey. — A preliminary 
report.  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1894,  pp.  401-419.  >; 

Halsted,  B.  D.  Notes  upon  poisonous  plants.  Garden  & Eorest,  - 
8:172.  1895. 

Halsted.  B.  D.  Poisonous  plants  of  New  Jersey.  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  .; 
Rep.  1895,  pp.  351-355- 

Halsted,  B.  D.  The  poisonous  plants  of  New  Jersey.  N.  J.  Exp.  . 
Sta.  Bull.  No.  135,  pp.  3-28.  1899. 

Hedrick,  U.  P.  A plant  that  poisons  cattle,  Cicuta.  Ore.  Exp.  Sta. 

Bull.  No.  46,  pp.  3-12.  1897.  '4 

Hillman,  F.  H..  .A  dangerous  range  plant  (Zygadenus).  Nev.  Exp. 

Sta.  Newspaper  Bull.  No.  5.  (1893.)  No.  21,  (1897).  ^ 

Irish,  P.  H.  Some  investigations  on  plants  poisonous  to  stock.  Ore.  . 

Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  No  3,  pp.  25  and  26.  1889.  ' ^ 

Jones,  L.  R.  In  Proc.  Soc.  Prom.  Agric.  Science,  1901. 

Kennedy,  James.  Astragalus  mollissimus.  Druggist^;  Circular  and  ;^j 
Chemical  Gazette,  Oct.  1888. 

Ladd,  S.  F.  A case  of  poisoning — water  hemlock.  N.  D.  Exp.  Sta.  •/ 
Bull.  No.  35,  pp.  307-310.  1899. 

Ladd,  S.  F.  Water  hemlock  poisoning.  Ibid.  No.  44,  pp.  563-569. 
1900. 

McEachran,  W.  The  loco  disease.  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1889,  pp. 

78,79- 

Macoun,  John.  Report  on  the  “poison-weed”  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain foothils.  Dept.  Agric.,  N.  W.  Ter.  Bull.  i.  pp.  17,18.  1898. 
Mayo,  N.  S.  Some  observations  upon  loco.  Kans.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull. 
No.  35,  pp.  113-119.  1892. 

Morse,  F.  W.  and  C.  D.  Howard.  Poisonous  properties  of  wild 
cherry  leaves  N.  H.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  No.  56,  pp.  1 12-123. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


103 


Nelson,  S.  B.  Feeding  wild  plants  to  sheep.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric., 
Bureau  Animal  Ind.  15th  An.  Rep.,  pp.  421-425.  1898. 

Ibid.  Bnll.  No.  22,  pp.  10-14.  1^98. 

O’Brine,  D.  Loco  poisoning  of  colts.  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1891, 
pp.  25-28. 

O’Brine,  D.  Progress  bnlletin  on  the  loco  and  larkspur.  Colo.  Exp. 

Sta.  Bnll.  No.  25,  pp.  3-26.  1893. 

O’Brine,  D.  Loco  studies.  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Rep.  1900,  pp.  26,  27. 
Ott,  Isaac.  In  New  Remedies,  Ang.  1882  (p.  226). 

Pammel,  L.  H.  Poisoning  from  cowbane  (Cicnta  macnlata,  L.) 

Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bnll.  No.  28,  pp.  215-228.  1895. 

Phares,  D.  L.  Bitter  Weed  (Heleninm  antumnale).  Miss  Exp. 

Sta.  Bnll.  No.  9,  pp.  11-14.  1889. 

Power,  F.  B..  .In  Rocky  Mountain  Druggist,  July  1889,  p.  81. 

Power,  F.  B.  & J.  Gambier.  Chemical  examination  of  some  loco 
weeds.  Astragalus  mollissimns,  Torr.  and  Crotalaria  sagittalls, 
L.  Rocky  Mountain  Druggist,  Jan.  1891,  pp.  5-9,  and  Pharmaceu- 
tische  Rundschau,  Jan.  1891,  p.  8. 

Rich,  F.  A.  & L.  R.  Jones.  A poisonous  plant — the  common  horse- 
tail (Eqnisetnm  arvense).  Vt.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  No.  95,  p-.  187- 
192.  1902. 

Rothrock,  J.  T.  Notes  on  economic  botany.  Wheeler  Sur\ev,  VI: 
43.  1878. 

Ruedi,  Carl.  Loco  weed  (Astragalus  mollissimns)  : a toxico-chemi- 
cal  study.  xAnn.  Trans.  Colo.  State  Medical  Society,  25th  An. 
Convention.  (Reprint).  1895. 

Rusby,  H.  H.  The  poisonous  plants  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York 
city. 

5ayre,  L.  E.  Loco  weed.  Druggists’  Bulletin,  May,  1889,  P-  I45- 
■ (Reprint). 

iayre,  L.  E.  xAstragalus  mollissimns.  Druggists’  Circular  and 
: Chemical  Gazette,  Feb,  1903,  pp.  27,  28. 

jlade,  H.  B.  Some  conditions  of  stock  poisoning  in  Idaho.  Idaho 
I Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  No.  37,  pp.  159-190.  1903. 

/asey,  George.  Plants  poisonous  to  cattle  in  California.  Rep.  U. 

S.  Dept.  Agric.  1874,  pp.  159-160. 

/asey,  George.  Loco  weeds.  Ibid.  1884,  pp.  123,  124. 

/asey,  George.  (Notes).  Ibid.  1886,  p.  75. 

A/'atson,  Miss  C.  M.  In  Amer.  Jour.  Pharmacy,  Dec.  1878. 

A/'ilcox,  E.  V.  Larkspur  poisoning  of  sheep.  Mont.  Exp.  .Sta.  Bull. 

. 15,  pp-  37-5 J-  1897. 

Wilcox,  E.  V.  Lupines  as  plants  poisonous  to  stock,  etc.  Montana 
Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  No.  22,  pp.  37-53.  1899. 

Williams,  T.  A.  some  plants  injurious  to  stock.  S.  Dak.  Exp. 

Sta.  Bull.  No.  33,  pp.  21-44.  1893. 

A^illing,  T.  N.  Poisonous  plants.  Dept.  Agric.,  N.  W.  Ter.  (Reg- 
ina). Bull.  No.  2 (1900)  and  No.  3 (1901),  pp.  27,  28. 
jVooton,  E.  O.  Astragalus  mollissimns,  Torr.  N.  Mex.  Exp.  Sta. 
j Bull.  No.  13,  pp.  29-32.  1894. 


104 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


INDEX. 


Aconite,  95:  see  “Larkspur.” 
Aconitum,  95. 

Alkali  poisoning,  97,  98,  100. 

Alum  as  a remedy,  98,  99. 

Ammonium  chloride,  99. 

Aragallus,  79-84. 

Astragalus,  79. 

Bacon  as  a remedy, 9 5. 

Bibliograp.by,  77,  101-103. 

Bleeding  as  a remedy,  93,  95,99. 

Bloat,  75,  86,  87,  95,  97,  98,  99,  100, 

Blue  bean,  84. 

Buffalo,  introduction  by,  80,  81. 
Carum,  89. 

Cicuta,  88-91. 

Colorado  loco  law,  83. 

Conditions  of  poisoning,  77,  78. 

Crazy  loco,  86. 

Crowfoot:  see  “Death  camas.” 
Danger  period,  78. 

Death  camas,  75-78,  91-93,  95,  98,  99 
100,  101.  (Fig.  4). 

Delphinium,  92-95. 

Extermination  of  larkspur,  95. 
Extermination  of  loco,  83,  84,  101. 
Extermination  of  water  hemlock,  91. 
Extermination  of  wild  parsnip,  97. 
Grease  as  a remedy,  91-99. 

Hay,  poisoning  by,  78,  86,  87,  89. 
Investigations,  76. 

Lard  as  a remedy,  91,  95,  99. 
Larkspur,  75-78,  92-95,  99,  100,  10 
(Figs.  5 and  6). 

Leptotaenia,  97. 

Linseed  oil  as  a remedy,  99. 

Loco,  75,  84,  99,  100,  101.  (Fig.  1). 
Loco  zone,  77,  79,  81,  82,  84. 

Losses  from  poisonous  plants,  75. 
Lupine,  75-78,  84-87,  99, 100, 101.  (Fig. : 


Lupinus:  see  “Lupine.” 

Milk,  as  a remedy,  97. 

Oxytropis,  79-84.  ' 

Ozonine,  99. 

Permanganate  of  potassium,  98,  99. 
Poison  zones,  76,  77,  91. 

Prairie  bean,  84. 

Prevention  of  loco,  82. 

Pterixia,  96,  97. 

Remedies,  98,  99:  see  also  under  each 
plant. 

Salt  as  a preventative,  82,  93. 

►Jiough  hay,  78,  87,  89. 

Sodium  carbonate,  99. 

Squaw-root,  89. 

Starz’  tablets  as  a remedy,  99. 
Sticking  for  bloat,  98. 

Summary,  101. 

Symptoms  of  alkali  poisoning,  97,  98; 

100. 

, Symptom  of  death  camas,  93,  100. 
Symptoms  of  larkspur,  95,  100. 
Symptoms  of  loco,  81,  100. 

Symptoms  of  lupine,  85,  100. 
Symptoms  of  water  hemlock,  89,  100, 
Symptoms  of  wild  parsnip,  97,  100. 
Synopsis  of  poisons,  100. 

Tobacco  as  a remedy,  99. 

Water  hemlock,  75-78,  88-91,  97,  99, 
100,'101.'  (Fig.  3). 

White  loco:  see  “Loco:” 

. Wild  leek:  see  “Death  camas.” 

Wild  onion:  see  “Death  camas.” 
Wild  parsley,  76-78,  95,  96,  97,  99, 

100.  (Fig.  7). 

Wild  parsnip:  see  “Wild  parsley.” 
Winter  poisoning,  78,  86,  100. 
Zenoleum  as  a remedy,  99. 

) Zygadenus,  90-93. 


ERRATA: — p.  77,  line  18,  “3  and  4”  should  read  “4  and  5.” 
p.  77,  line  19,  “6”  should  be  “7.” 


BULLETIN  No.  46, 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

Experiment  Station, 


OF  THE 


Ag(rictilttiral  College  of  Montana. 


TWO  INSECT  PESTS. 


Bozeman,  Montana,  June,  1903. 


REPUBLICAN, 
Bozeman,  Montana, 
1003. 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

Kxperiment  Staition. 

BOZEHAN,  = MONTANA. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUOATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor,  ) 

James  Donovan,  Attorney-General,  [■  Ex-Officio Helena. 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  ) 

J.  M.  Evans, Missoula, 

C.  R.  Leonard, Butte. 

N.  W.  McConnell, Helena. 

W.  M.  Johnston Billings. 

O.  P.  Chisholm, Bozeman  . 

J.  G.  McKay, Hamilton. 

G.  T.  Paul Dillon. 

N.  B.  Holter, Helena. 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President Bozeman. 

J.  M.  Robinson,  Vice-President, — Bozeman. 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary, Bozeman. 

Joseph  Kountz, Bozeman. 

E.  B.  Lamme, Bozeman. 


STATION  STAFF. 


Samuel,  Fortier,  Ma.  E., 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S.,  . 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D., 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc., 

F.  B.  Linfield,  B.  S.  a, 

R.  W.  Fisher,  B.  S., 

Edmund  Burke 

H.  C.  Gardiner 


Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer. 

. . . Chemist. 

Botanist. 

Entomologist. 

Agriculturist. 

Assistant  Horticulturist. 

Assistant  Chemist. 

Student  in  Charge  of  Poultry. 


Postoffice,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 

All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be  addressed  to  the 
Director. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 


Notice. — The  Bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to  any  citizen  of 
Montana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the  Station  for  that  purpose. 


Montana  Experiment  Station 


BULLETIN  NO.  46.  = = JUNE,  1903. 


TWO  INSECT  PESTS. 


R.  A.  COOLEY 


THE  RO.SEBUD  CURCULIO 


Rhyiichites  hicolor  Fab. 


The  rosebud  curculio  occurs  very  commonly  on  wild  and  culti- 
vated roses  in  Montana.  The  beetles  are  rather  shy  when  discovered, 
and  though  their  movements  are  not  quick,  they  soon  disappear  under 
a leaf  or  stem  when  a person  approaches.  In  common  with  many 
other  insects,  they  have  the  habit  of  drawing  in  their  legs  when  in 
danger  and  allowing  themselves  to  drop  to  the  earth,  where  they 
remain  motionless  for  a short  time,  or  until  the  danger  has  passed. 
This  is  doubtless  an  effective  means  of  protection  against  natural 


enemies. 


108 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


The  colors  found  on  the  beetle  are  red  and  black.  The  wing 
covers,  which  make  up  the  greater  part  of  the  upper  surface  of  the 
body,  and  the  thorax  (pro thorax)  are  red,  while  the  head,  including  the 
beak  or  snout,  the  antennae,  the  legs,  and  the  entire  under  surface  of 
the  body  are  black. 

Mr.  F.  H.  Chittenden,  an  Assistant  Entomologist  in  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  reports*  that  in  Colorado  specimens 
are  found  in  which  the  greater  part  of  the  head,  legs  and  antennae  are 
red  like  the  upper  surface  of  the  body. 

The  beak  or  snout  is  long  and  slender,  as  indicated  in  the  accom- 
panying iignre  (Fig.  1.  a.  and  d.).  The  antennae  are  club-shaped  and 
are  attached  near  the  middle  of  the  snout,  one  oh  each  side.  The 
mouth  parts  are  situated  on  the  extreme  end  of  the  beak,  and  are 
made  up  of  a number  of  pieces,  the  most  formidable  of  which  are  the 
mandibles,  which  are  toothed  on  both  the  inner  and  outer  edge.  The 
mouth  parts  viewed  from  beneath  are  illustrated  in  Figure  1,  g 
Exclusive  of  the  beak  the  beetle  measures  a little  less  than  one-fourth 
of  an  inch  in  length. 

The  injuries  for  which  the  species  is  responsible  are  done  by  the 
adult  or  beetle,  and  so  far  as  is  known  by  the  writer,  the  larva,  though 
it  feeds  in  the  fruit  of  the  rose,  does  no  harm  to  the  bushes  in  any 
way.  The  principal  injury  accomplished  by  the  beetle  is  done  by  bor- 
ing small,  deep  holes  into  the  buds.  Many  holes  are  often  bored  into 
a single  bud.  Though  such  a bud  may  open,  the  resulting  rose  is  of 
no  value.  Other  buds  cease  to  develoj)  when  eaten  into  and  soon 
wither,  and  dry  up.  The  beetles  also  bore  holes  into  the  stems  of  the 
roses  at  right  angles  to  the  axis.  Buds  affected  in  this  way  wilt,  and 
hang  from  the  stems,  and  later  dry. 

We  have  not  been  able  to  see  any  particular  significance  in  the 
boring  of  holes  into  the  stems,  though  when  we  began  the  studies  it 
was  thought  possible  that  the  buds  were  caused  to  wilt  and  dry  for  the 
purpose  of  preparing  a suitable  food  for  the  young.  Though  very 


p.  99,  Bulletin  Division  of  Entomology,  New  Series,  No.  27, 1901. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


109 


many  such  buds  have  been  broken  oijen  and  examined,  we  have  never 
found  a larva  feeding  in  one. 

Complaints  of  the  injuries  caused  by  this  beetle  have  reached  the 
Experiment  Station  from  various  parts  of  the  State,  particularly  from 
Kalispeil,  Missoula  and  Bozeman.  The  injuries  are  scarcely  less 
serious  and  extensive  than  those  of  the  rose  chafer,  ( Macrodactylits 


Fig.  1,  ROSEBUD  CURCULIO— a.,  adult  beetle;  b.,  larva;  c.,  egg;  d.,  sideview  of  head  of 
beetle;  e.,  b^^d  injured  by  the  beetle;  f.,  mouthparts  of  the  larva;  g..  mouthparts  of  the  beetle. 
(Drawings  by  the  writer.) 

' siib spinosus  ) in  the  Eastern  States,  and  a number  of  cases  have  come 
under  the  writer’s  attention  in  which  persons  have  given  up  an  attempt 
to  grow  roses  on  account  of  the  injuries  of  this  insect.  We  have 
received  no  reports  of  injury  by  this  insect  on  green-house  roses. 

The  species  is  a native  one  and  has  been  found  by  the  writer  on 
wild  roses  far  into  the  mountains  in  Montana.  Various  writers  have 


110 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


reported  it  as  a troublesome  pest  ou  roses  in  widely  separated  parts  of 
the  United  States.  It  occnrs  in  the  northern  tier  of  States  from  ocean 
to  ocean  and  as  far  south  as  Mexico. 

Mr.  Alexander  Craw,  Quarantine  Officer  and  Entomologist  of  the 
California  State  Board  of  Horticulture,  has  mentioned  this  species  as 
being  frequently  found  eating  into  rii>e  blackberries  and  rasxDberries 
which  it  causes  to  decay. 

The  beetles  appear  on  the  bushes  early  in  June  and  con- 
tinue until  the  latter  part  of  August.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  vari- 
ous places.  Most  of  those  found  by  the  writer  were  in  the  buds,  either 
in  the  unexpanded  petals  or  in  the  young  fruit.  One  egg  was  found 
in  the  tender  extremity  of  a new  cane  and  one  in  a Cynipid  gall. 
In  all  cases  the  eggs  were  found  in  the  holes  made  with  the  beak,  and 
were  placed  well  down  in  the  holes,  below  the  surface.  The  form  of 
the  eggs  is  shown  at  c.  Fig.  1.  They  are  semi-transimrent  and  almost 
colorless. 

The  eggs  hatch  in  a few  days,  jjrobably  about  a week  or  ten  days. 
We  have  never  been  able  to  find  larvm  except  in  the  rose  hip  or  fruit, 
and  this  is  doubtless  the  normal  pla3e  for  their  development. 

They  feed  upon  the  seeds  which  fill  the  greater  part  of  the  cavity 
of  the  fruit.  The  fleshy  coating  of  the  fruit  is  not  eaten  so  far  as  we 
have  observed.  Examination  of  a fruit  containing  a nearly  full 
grown  larva  shows  a j^art  or  all  of  the  seeds  excavated  to  mere  shells 
and  the  bo<ly  of  the  larva  buried  in  a mass  of  waste  and  excrement. 
Such  a fruit  shows  a blackened  scar  on  the  side  which  marks  the  spot 
where  the  parent  beetle  bored  in  to  deposit  the  egg. 

The  larva  or  grub  (Fig.  1,  b.)  is  yellowish  white  with  a rosy  tint 
and  instead  of  being  straight  has  the  back  arched.  It  has  no  legs. 
The  head  and  month  parts  viewed  from  above  are  shown  at  Fig.  1,  f. 

We  have  never  found  the  larvae  in  abundance.  A large  bush 
bearing  many  hips  seldom  has  more  than  two  infested  fruits,  though 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Ill 


many  may  have  the  external  mark  that  would  indicate  them  to  be 
infested. 

The  grubs  finish  feeding  and  disappear  early  in  October.  We 
have  never  found  the  larvae  or  xDupae  in  winter  quarters  and  are  not 
informed  as  to  how^  they  pass  the  winter.  We  examined  many  rose 
hips  that  have  been  occupied  by  larvae  and  found  exit  openings  in  the 
side  of  the  fruit,* and  the  grubs  gone.  This  would  seem  to  indicate 
that,  w’hen  full  grown,  the  larvae  eat  holes  to  the  surface  and  go  to 
the  ground  to  pupate  and  pass  the  winter. 

In  the  Bitter  Root  valley  and  at  Bozeman  the  writer  has  repeat- 
edly found  the  larva  of  a moth  tunnelling  in  the  new  canes  of 
wild  roses,  and  at  Missoula  and  Hamilton  we  have  had  complaints 
of  what  appears  to  be  the  same  insect  on  cultivated  varieties. 
The  larva  begins  at  the  tender  extremity  of  the  shoot  and  bores  down- 
ward in  the  center  of  the  stem,  thereby  killing  it  and  seriously  inter- 
fering with  the  normal  development  of  the  bush.  This  insect  should 
not  be  confused  with  the  rosebud  curculio. 

REMEDIES. 

In  many  cases  hand  picking  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  get  relief 
from  the  injuries  caused  by  this  insect. 

In  a previous  paragraph  we  have  mentioned  the  fact  that  when 
disturbed  the  beetles  drop  to  the  ground.  Taking  advantage  of  this 
one  can  catch  the  beetles  by  holding  a hand,  or  better,  a pan  contain- 
ing kerosene  underneath  and  causing  the  beetles  to  drop. 

Under  some  conditions  hand  picking  is  a futile  measure.  W^hen 
the  cultivated  roses  to  be  protected  are  in  the  vicinity  of  wild  roses 
which  breed  the  beetles  year  after  year,  it  will  probably  be  useless  to 
attempt  hand  picking.  Under  some  circumstances  it  may  be  profit- 
able to  destroy  wild  roses  that  furnish  a breeding  place.  In  general, 
however,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  beetles  fly  over  a consid- 
erable distance  and  that  until  fence  corners  and  waste  lands  of  the 


112 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION 


sarrounding  country  are  cleaned  of  the  native  roses,  more  or  less 
trouble  will  always  be  experienced. 

It  is  said  that  a spray  of  Paris  green  will  kill  the  beetles. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


IIB 


THE  POPLAR  LEAF=FOLDINQ 
SAWFLY. 

Pontania  hozeinani  Cooley. 


The  various  native  and  introduced  poplars  easily  take  first  place 
as  shade  and  ornamental  trees  for  Montana,  and  they  far  outnumber 
all  other  kinds  now  in  use  in  the  State.  The  leaf-folding  sawfiy  is  one 
of  the  most  troublesome  and  widespread  of  the  many  species  of  insects 
that  feed  upon  these  shade  trees.  For  the  past  few  years  this  insect 
has  been  steadily  increasing  in  numbers  and  during  the  summer  of 
1902  was  very  commonly  seen.  In  a few  cases  trees  were  found  with 
neariy  every  leaf  deformed,  and  in  the  residental  parts  of  some  of  the 
towns  and  cities  of  the  State  it  has  been  so  abundant  as  to  very  greatly 
injure  the  natural  beauty  of  the  trees. 

This  insect  appears  to  be  native  to  the  State  and  occurs  in  natural 
growth  along  streams  as  well  as  in  trees  used  for  shade. 

A close  study  of  adult  spacimens  showed  them  to  belong  to  an 
undescribed  species,  and  we  have  therefore  proposed  the  name  Pon- 
tania BOZEMANi,  after  the  city  in  which  it  first  came  under  our  notice. 
The  writer’s  technical  descriptions  establishing  the  species  are  to  be 
found  in  the  current  volume  of  the  “Canadian  Entomologist.” 

This  insect  makes  its  presence  conspicuous  by  the  manner  in 
which  it  deforms  the  leaves.  Affected  leaves  have  their  lateral  edges 
turned  under  until  they  lie  against  the  lower  surface.  See  Fig.  2,  g. 


114 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Both  edges  of  the  same  leaf  are  often  foldel.  The  cavity  formed  by 
the  fold  is  occupied  by  the  larva. 

The  presence  of  the  insect  is  objectionable  not  for  any  real  injury 
that  is  done  to  the  health  of  the  tree  but  because  of  the  disfigurement 
to  the  foliage. 

The  adult  hibernates  among  the  leaves  on  the  ground,  and, 
emerging  in  the  month  of  May,  lays  its  eggs  on  the  young  leaves  that 
are  just  being  put  forth.  The  new  shoots  of  the  poj)lars  continue  to 
grow  through  the  summer  months,  and  as  they  increase  in  length  new 
leaves  appear.  The  sawflies  continue  on  the  foliage  depositing  their 
eggs  through  the  month  of  July. 

Although  the  writer  has  often  examined  the  eggs  in  their  minute 
pockets  under  the  ej)idermis  in  the  folds  of  the  leaves,  the  insect  was 
not  seen  in  the  act  of  depositing  them  until  July  1,  1902,  when  the 
whole  process  was  seen  and  recorded.  While  searching  the  cotton- 
woods on  the  college  campus  for  evidence  in  the  life-history  of  the 
insect,  a female  was  seen  going  from  leaf  to  leaf  as  if  prompted  by  some 
distinct  purpose.  Different  leaves  were  carefully  examined  by  the  sawfly 
and  finally  one  was  selected.  The  young,  tender  • leaves  of  poplars, 
previous  to  being  expanded,  have  both  the  lateral  edges  rolled  upward 
and  inward  parallel  with  the  midrib  (involute),  and  it  is  on  top  of  this 
roll,  and  hence  on  what  is  to  become  the  under  surface  of  the  leaf,  that 
the  sawfly  works.  Having  selected  the  leaf  the  sawfly  we  observed 
began  at  the  end  of  the  roll  nearer  the  tojo  of  the  leaf  and  walked 
slowly  along  to  the  other  end  repeatedly  puncturing  the  tender  leaf 
with  the  ovipositor.  When  at  the  other  end  of  the  roll,  she  stopped 
and,  without  turning  around,  went  through  motions  which  indicated 
that  she  was  laying  an  egg  in  the  leaf,  underneath  her.  body,  far  up 
toward  her  head.  A slight  breeze  was  blowing  and  causing  the  foliage 
to  move  so  the  writer  was  able  to  take  tlie  stem  in  his  hand  and  follow 
the  whole  operation  closely  without  frightening  the  sawfly  away.  The 
ovipositor  could  be  distinctly  seen  both  while  making  the  numerous 
punctures  in  the  leaf  and  while  depositing  the  egg.  After  the  sawfly 
had  left,  the  leaf  was  carefully  examined  with  a hand  lens  and  although 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


115 


almost  the  exact  spot  was  known  the  egg  pocket  could  not  be  found. 
The  leaf  was  marked  with  ai^iece  of  white  thread  and  going  back  later 
in  the  day  the  egg-pocxet  and  egg  were  distinctly  seen.  The  exact 
duration  of  the  egg  stage  was  not  determined  on  account  of  absence 
from  the  college  but  was  very  close  to  nine  days.  Long  before  the 
egg  hatched  the  leaf-fold  w*as  completed,  thus  making  it  clear  that  the 
adult  insect  was  wholly  responsible  for  the  folding  of  the  leaf. 

The  egg  of  this  insect  is  long-ovate,  about  one-twenty-fifth  of  an 
inch  (1.05  mm)  in  length  and  wdiitish  in  color.  The  egg  (shown  in 


Fig.  2,  LEAF  FOLDING  SAWFLY— a.,  egg  showing  embryo;  b.,  immature  larva;  c.,  co- 
coon; d.,  female  sawfly ; e.,  sideview  of  extremity  of  abdomen  of  female;  f.,portionofpoplar 
leaf  showing  the  egg  pocket  under  the  epidermis ; g , leaf  with  the  two  edges  folded  under  and 
other  parts  eaten  away.  (Author’s  illustration,  first  used  in  the  Canadian  Entomologist.) 


Fig.  2 a.)  had  been  kept  in  formalin  for  a few  month  and  showed  the 
nearly  mature  embryo  as  indicated  in  outline  in  the  drawing.  The 
young  larva  is  at  first  very  delicate  and  almost  colorless,  but  later,  as 
it  grows  larger,  it  becomes  stronger  and  turns  to  a pale  green  color. 


116 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


See  Fig.  2,  b.  During  its  early  life  the  larva  feeds  wholly  from  the 
inner  surface  of  the  portion  of  the  leaf  that  is  folded  and  forms  its 
retreat,  and  this  part  soon  becomes  more  or  less  skeletonized.  When 
it  has  reached  a greater  size  making  more  food  necessary,  instead  of 
continuing  to  eat  away  the  walls  of  its  home,  it  ventures  forth  out  of 
the  end  of  the  fold  opposite  from  the  petiole  and  eats  holes  through 
the  leaf  not  stoijping  with  the  surface  parts.  The  part  of  the  leaf 
making  up  the  fold  and  adjacent  parts  become  blackened.  The  fold 
of  the  leaf  is  used  as  a hiding  place  throughout  the  larval  life. 

A very  large  proportion  of  the  larvae  never  reach  sufficient  size  to 
begin  feeding  outside  the  fold  of  the  leaf,  though  certain  letters  of 
incpiiry  about  this  insect  from  citizens  of  the  State  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  at  times  praeticilly  all  come  to  maturity.  In  such  cases 
serious  injury  to  the  foliage  would  follow. 

During  the  first  two  years  that  the  writer  had  this  insect  under 
observation,  not  a leaf  was  found  that  contained  a larva  more  than  a 
few  days  old  In  fact,  the  usual  injury  throughout  the  State  is  only 
the  folding  of  the  leaves.  We  have  found  nothing  to  indicate  the 
cause  of  the  death  of  this  large  proportion  of  the  larvae.  The  vacated 
cavities  later  become  inhabited  by  plant  lice  and  various  other  insects 
and  spiders. 

A leaf  folded  by  this  insect  and  partly  eaten  is  shown  at  g.  in  the 
accompanying  figure. 

When  fully  grown  the  larva  constructs  a cocoon  in  the  fold  of  the 
leaf.  This  cocoon  (Fig.  2,  c.)  is  ellipsoidal  in  form,  8.-  mm  long  and 
brown  in  color.  The  cocoon  drops  to  the  ground  along  with  the  leaf 
and  is  occupied  by  the  insect  until  the  following  spring.  The  adult 
insect  emerges  from  the  cocoon  in  the  spring  and  lays  the  eggs  as 
already  described. 

The  female  adult  insect  (Fig.  2,  d.)  is  a “four-winged  fly”  one- 
sixth  of  an  inch  (6. -mm)  in  length  and  resinous-yellow  and  black  in 
color.  The  antennae,  a large  spot  on  the  upper  side  of  the  head,  the 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


117 


upper  side  of  the  thorax  and  a tapering  stripe  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
abdomen,  are  glossy  black  while  the  remaining  parts  are,  for  the  most 
part,  resinous  yellow.  The  male  insect  is  slightly  smaller,  with  a more 
slender  body,  and  has  the  entire  upper  surface  of  the  abdomen  black. 

The  leaf-folding  sawfiy  here  discussed  is  a member  of  a large  and 
important  family  of  insects  popularly  called  sawflies  and  scientifically 
known  as  the  TENTHREDiNiDiE.  About  2,000  species  of  sawflies  are 
known. 

Though  we  speak  of  these  insects  as  “flies”  or  “sawflies,”  it  should 
be  understood  that  they  do  not  belong  to  the  true  flies  or  Diptera  to 
which  order  the  common  house-fiy  belongs.  The  sawflies  have  mouth 
parts  for  biting  and  chewing  and  are  provided  with  two  pairs  of  wings, 
while  the  true  flies  have  mouth  parts  for  lapping,  or  piercing  and 
sucking,  and  have  only  one  pair  of  wings. 

Sawflies  take  their  common  name  from  the  fact  that  the  ovipos- 
itor of  the  female  is  so  constructed  as  to  resemble  a saw.  When  not 
in  use,  the  saw,  or  saws  (for  there  are  two  of  them),  are  enclosed  in  a 
sheath  which  in  turn  is  situated  in  a longitudinal  groove  in  the  under 
side  of  the  abdomen  at  the  posterior  end.  The  female  uses  this  ovi- 
positor to  cut  a slit  or  pocket  in  the  soft  tissues  of  plants  in  which  to 
deposit  the  eggs.  In  the  species  now  under  discussion,  and  in  many 
others,  also,  the  egg  is  deposited  just  under  the  epidermis  of  the  leaves 
which  is  very  skillfvdly  separated  from  the  underlying  tissues  with 
the  ovipositor. 

Most  sawfiy  larvae  so  closely  resemble  caterpillars  of  moths 
and  butterflies  as  to  be  easily  mistaken  for  them.  They  may  be  dis- 
tinguished, however,  by  the  larger  number  of  abdominal  legs.  Sawfiy 
larvae  have  from  six  to  eight  pairs  while  caterpillars  usually  have  five 
or  less. 

The  larvae  of  most  of  the  species  of  the  genus  Pontania,  to  which 
the  poplar  leaf-folding  sawfiy  belongs,  feed  in  abnormal  growths  called 
galls  on  the  leaves.  The  only  exception  outside  of  the  present  species. 


11« 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


known  to  the  writer,  is  one  which  rolls  the  tips  of  willow  leaves  and 
constructs  imperfect  galls.  This  species  was  described  from  New 
York  City  oy  Mr.  C.  L.  Marlatt  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

REMEDIES. 

As  has  been  stated,  this  insect  is  native  to  the  State  and  occurs 
commonly  on  the  natural  growth.  This  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind 
in  attempting  to  control  it  on  trees  planted  for  shade  or  ornamental 
purposes.  When  the  trees  are  in  the  vicinity  of  natural  growth  that 
is  infested,  it  will  probably  be  impracticable  to  get  the  protection 
desired.  It  should  be  noted  also  that  the  only  way  to  prevent  the 
folding  of  the  edges  of  the  leaves  is  to  destroy  the  adults  before  they 
sting  the  leaves.  The  spraying  that  is  suggested  below  will  be  of  ser- 
vice only  in  killing  the  larvae  and,  therefore,  in  preventing  the  injury 
to  the  foliage  the  following  season. 

Probably  the  most  satisfactory  results  will  be-secured  by  gather- 
ing and  burning  the  leaves  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  As  we  have  pre- 
viously stated,  the  insect  passes  the  winter  among  these  leaves;  hence 
the  utility  of  destroying  the  leaves. 

Spraying  the  trees  once  or  twice  in  July  and  August  with 
Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  would  be  useful  in  killing  the  larvae 
that  come  out  of  the  folds  to  feed.  It  is  not  necessary  to  get  the 
poison  inside  the  folds  for  those  that  would  come  to  maturity  come 
out  of  the  folds  to  feed. 


BULLETIN  NO.  47. 


MONTANA 

AGRICULTURAL 

EXPERIMENT  STATION 

-OF- 

THE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 

-OF- 

■ MONTANA. 


SHEEP  FEEDING. 

WINTER  OF  1902  = 1903. 


BOZEnAN.  nONTANA,  SEPTEMBER,  1903. 


BOZEMAN  CHRONICLE--1903. 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 


EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor,  ] 

James  Donovan,  Attorney-General,  [ Ex-Officio 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  ) 

J.  M.  Evans 

C.  R.  Leonard 

N.  W.  McConnell 

W.  M.  Johnston : 

O.  P.  Chisholm 

J.  G.  McKay 

G.  T.  Pali 

N.  B.  Holter 


Helena 

Missoula 

Butte 

Helena 

....Billings 

.Bozeman 

Hamilton 

Dillon 

Helena 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President Bozeman 

John  M.  Robinson,  Vice-President Bozeman 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary Bozeman 

Joseph  Kountz Bozeman 

E.  B.  Lamme Bozeman 


STATION  STAFF. 

S.  Fortier,  Ma.  E Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer 

F.  B.  Linfieli),  B.  S.  A Vice  Director  and  Agriculturist 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S Chemist 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D Botanist 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc Entomologist 

R.  W.  Fisher,  B.  S Assistant  Horticulturist 

Edmund  Burke Assistant  Chemist 


Post  Office,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be 
addressed  to  the  Director, 

Montana  Experiment  Station, 

Bozeman,  Mont. 


NOTICE — The  bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to 
any  citizen  of  Alontana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the 
Station  for  that  purpose. 


EXPERIMENT  IN  SHEEP  FEEDING,  1903. 


F.  B.  LINFIELD. 


CONTENTS. 

Page 

lutroclnctioii 4 

The  Plau  of  the  Experimeut (> 

Kind  of  Feed  and  Prices (> 

Weighing  the  Sheei:) 7 

Discussion  of  Results 10 

Weights  of  Wethers 10 

xViuouut  of  Food  Eaten  by  Wethers 10 

Food  Eaten  for  Each  Pound  of  Gain  by  W’ethers 11 

Cost  of  Food  Eaten  by  Wethers 11 

Weights  of  Lambs 14 

Amount  of  Food  Eaten  by  Lambs ■ 14 

Food  Eaten  for  Each  Pound  of  Gain  by  Lambs 14 

Cost  of  Food  Eaten  bv  Lambs 15 

Comparison  of  Lambs  and  Wethers;  The  Gain  and  Cost  of  Gain 15 

Gain  Made  for  the  Various  Periods 1(1 

Value  of  Grain  Rations.  Lambs  vs.  Wethers 1(> 

The  Clover  Waste 17 

The  Financial  Results  with  Lambs 18^ 

The  Shipping  Experience 11) 

The  Financial  Results  with  Wethers 20 

The  Shipping  Experience 22 

Comments  on  the  Quality  of  tlie  Stock .• 22 

Per  Cent  of  Dressed  Meat  to  Live  \Yeight 24 

Shrinkage  from  12  Hours  Fast 25 

Shriukaee  from  Shipping  to  Chicago 2(> 

Cost  of  Shipping  to  Chicago 2(> 

The  Net  Prices  Received  at  Bozeman;  Chicago  Prices 27 

The  Experiences  of  Some  Other  Feeders 28 

Summary  and  Conclusion iVZ 


SHEEP  FEEDING 


INTRODUCTION. 


Montana  is  the  banner  sheep  state  of  the  Union  with  5,000,- 
000  sheep  owned  within  her  border.  The  numl^er  of  sheep  have 
increased  rapidl3"  in  the  past  ten  ^^ears,  dne  to  the  excellent  grass 
on  the  range  and  the  substantial  profit  in  the  business.  From 
observation  and  information  gathered,  the  limit  of  increase,  as 
far  as  the  range  is  concerned,  is  veiw  nearh^  reached.  Thus  a 
much  larger  number  of  the  increase  of  the  flocks  will  have  to  l:)e 
marketed  yearly. 

This  condition  will  probably  call  for  some  change  of  method 
in  the  handling  and  management  of  the  range  flocks.  If  care- 
fully entered  upon,  it  also  means  the  establishment  of  large  and 
profitable  feeding  operations  in  the  stcite.  Because  of  the  excel- 
lent herding  qualities  and  closeness  of  wool,  the  Merinos  Avill 
alwaA^s  predominate  in  the  range  flocks.  The.market,  however, 
demands  a mutton  type. 

It  is  believed  that  both  these  demands  may  be  met  b3"  the 
range  herder.  In  those  districts  that  cater  to  the  feeding  de- 
mand, the  range  flocks  should  be  largely  a ewe  flock,  strong,  vig- 
orous ewes,  of  the  type  that  would  result  from  using  a Ramboul- 
let  or  Delaine  ram.  All  ewes  added  to  the  flock  should  be  of  this 
style  and  breeding.  Such  a flock  of  ewes  bred  to  a good,  pure- 
bred mutton  t3"pe  of  ram,  would  give  an  excellent  feeding  lamb. 
The  plan  of  breeding  outlined  mav'  not  be  whollv  feasible  to  the 
small  range  holder,  but  would  be  entireh'so  for  the  larger  holder. 
It  ma\^  even  be  profitable  to  produce  the  kind  of  ewe  needed  b\" 
the  man  who  is  catering  to  the  feeding  trade. 


SHEEP  FEEDING. 


5 


The  feeding  of  sheep  for  the  market  has  increased  rapidly  the 
past  few  years.  This  is  as  it  should  be,  as  with  a large  number 
of  sheep  being  produced  and  going  into  the  market  and  with 
abundant  and  cheap  fodders,  there  is  every  reason  why  the 
people  of  Montana  should  retain  in  the  state  the  profits  of  the 
feeder  as  well  as  those  of  the  grower.  Looked  at  in  this  light, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  interests  of  the  range  producer  and  farm 
feeder  are  mutual  and  reciprocal  and  not  antagonistic  as  many 
have  thought  in  the  past. 

Recognizing  the  trend  of  affairs,  the  Experiment  Station  some 
four  years  ago  started  experiments  to  test  the  value  of  local  feeds 
in  fattening  sheep  and  to  learn  something  of  the  effect  of  the 
local  conditions,  climate  and  market  facilities  upon  the  financial 
results  of  the  feeding  operation.  The  results  of  previous  tests 
are  recorded  in  bulletins  No.  21,  27,  31  and  35  and  summarized 
in  bulletin  No.  39. 

The  past  winter  another  series  of  tests  were  made  to  gather 
additional  information  on  this  subject,  and  a report  of  this  work 
is  here  given. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  month  of  October,  1902,  a 
bunch  of  110  lambs  and  112  two-year-old  wethers  were  pur- 
chased from  JohnRobinson  of  Bozeman.  They  were  selected  from 
a flock  of  2,000  purchased  by  Mr.  Robinson  for  his  own  feeding. 
An  even  lot  was  selected,  but  from  weights  furnished  by  Mr. 
Robinson  it  is  believed  they  were  a very  close  average  of  the  flock. 
We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Robinson  for  the  privilege  of  making  this 
selection.  The  sheep  arrived  at  the  College  farm  on  Oct.  22d. 
This  was  before  the  writer  arrived  to  take  charge  of  the  work  of 
the  department,  and,  unfortunately,  the  sheep  were  not  weighed 
at  this  time.  From  this  date  until  November  18,  the  sheep  were 
allowed  the  run  of  the  Station  farm  to  gather  what  they  could 
from  the  stubble  and  hay  fields.  They  made  substantial  gains 
during  this  period,  but  not  being  weighed  when  they  arrived,  the 
exact  gain  cannot  be  determined.  From  the  fields  the  sheep  came 
into  the  feeding  lot  in  excellent  condition,  a very  desirable  point 
in  successful  feeding. 

The  lambs  .showed  strong  evidence  of  “Down”  blood,  many  of 
them  with  dark  faces  and  legs.  The  wethers  were  also  close 


6 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


fleeced,  but  there  was  not  as  large  a proportion  of  dark  faces. 
They  were  selected  from  a range  flock  that  had  evidently  been 
graded  up  strongly  with  Shropshire  blood.  The  lambs  cost  at 
the  Station  farm  $1.80  each,  the  wethers  $2.80  each. 


THE  PLAN  OF  THE  EXPERIMENT. 


In  connection  with  the  main  thought,  the  feeding  and  finish- 
ing of  sheep  for  market,  some  comparisons  were  made  as  to  the 
relative  food  value  of  different  kinds  of  grain.  The  lambs  and 
Avethers,  therefore,  were  diAuded  into  fiA^e  lots  each,  22  lambs  in 
each  lot  of  lambs  and  22  AA^ethers  in  three  lots  and  23  intAA'olots. 

The  lots  AA^ere  as  follows : 

Lambs.  Lot  1,  fed  cloA^er  and  Avheat  screenings. 

“ Lot  2,  fed  clover  and  Avheat. 

“ Lot  3,  fed  cloA’er  and  oats. 

“ Lot  4,  fed  cloA^er  and  barley. 

“ Lot  5,  fed  clover  and  AAdieat,  oats  and  barley  mixed 

in  equal  quantities  by  AA^eight. 

The  AA^ethers  AA^ere  also  diAuded  into  five  lots  and  fed  the  same 
kind  of  rations  as  the  lambs. 

The  clover  AAms  fed  ad  libitum  and  AAdiat  Avaste  Avas  left  OA^er, 
Avas  AA^eighed  back  tAAUce  a AA^eek.  The  grain  AAms  started  at  5 
pounds  per  day  for  each  lot  some  ten  days  after  the  feeding  test 
Avas  started.  The  grain  ration  AAms  gradualh^  increased,  one 
month  being  taken  to  get  up  to  a full  grain  ration  of  1 pound  of 
grain  per  day  perjamb  or  AA'ether.  Both  grain  and  haA’  AA^ere  fed 
twice  in  the  daA\  morning  and  evening. 


KIND  OF  FEED  AND  PRICES. 


The  hay  AAms  a mixture  of  medium  and  alsike  clover  of  med- 
ium quality.  Some  of  it  AA^as  stacked  a little  green  and  Avas 
slightly  musty.  It  AAms  eaten  readily  bA^  the  sheep. 


shep:p  feedinc;. 


The  wheat  screeningvS  consisted  of  small  and  broken  wheat 
together  with  other  grain  and  the  small  seeds  usually  associated 
with  it ; in  other  words  the  best  grade  of  screenings. 

The  wheat,  oats  and  barley  fed  was  good,  marketable  grain. 
All  the  grain  was  fed  whole.  The  grain  and  hay  were  weighed 
for  each  lot  at  each  time  fed. 

The  prices  on  the  feed  were  as  follows*  being  market  prices  at 
the  beginning  of  the  experiment.  Prices,  of  course,  vary  from 
year  to  year,  but  they  are  given  to  afford  a comparison  on  tliis 
basis. 

Clover  hay $5.00  per  ton 

Wheat  screenings 75e  per  100  lbs. 

Wheat 88c  per  100  lbs. 

Oats 85c  per  100  lbs. 

Barley 9v5c  per  100  lbs. 

The  sheep  had  access  to  the  water  from  a small  stream 
which  ran  through  the  lower  part  of  the  yards. 

The  yards  in  which  the  sheep  were  fed  were  about  8 feet  wide 
by  100  feet  long  and  a straw-covered  shed  at  one  end  provided 
shelter.  It  was  noticed,  however,  that  they  seldom  used  this 
shelter  except  in  very  stormy  weather. 


WEIGHING  SHEEP. 


The  sheep  were  weighed  on  two  days  at  the  beginning  of  the 
test,  and  the  average  of  this  weight  taken  as  the  beginnnig 
weight.  They  were  weighed  every  two  \veeks  after  this  date, 
the  weighings  being  made  with  one  day  intervening  and  these 
two  weights  averaged.  . The  sheep  were  weighed  right  after 
noon,  or  mid-way  between  the  morning  and  evening  feed. 


TABLE  I.— Weights  and  Gains  of  Wethers. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMP:NT  STATION. 


! c.-::  .- 

- c 
r - O-C 

’/j 

Cl  l'-  ^ l O 
o 1-  Cl  CO  d 
o d ic 

Cl  )0  OC  ^ lO 

1 rl  .-(  O CO 

L’  LO  CO  05 

; O d 50  1-  CO 

lO  to  t-H  C.|  -M 

J Cl  1'-  CO  CO  lO 

Cl  l'<-  d C5  -H 
d O 00  Cl  o 

d 

d 

ll-l 

c 

d 

O 05  o o o 

-t(  tO  Cl 

d X (05  d to 

T-t  CO  CO  1-  00 
Cl  Cl  Cl  d ^ 

Cl 

Cl 

|£^l 

S'-  ^.5  c 

<S£3= 

tfi 

g 

(d 

LO  d d rH  CO 
to  L'  L' d CO 

^ -H  —1  Cl  t-H 

ii- 

d 

1 

f-  c c“,  C 

^C-i£  2 

I'Jll 

Cl  lO  05  1-  >C 
Cl  rH  rl  ^ O 
CO  CO  CO  CO  CO 

Cl  CO  '<*1 

L^  UO  O O 

1— ( ^ l-l  Cl  rH 

CO  Cl  00  LO  CO 
L-  to  00  LO 

<— t Cl  d Cl  rH 

„ fO  ^ d 
Cl  -ti  lO  GO  C5 
Cl  d Cl  Cl 

30 

CO 

Cl 

■J. 

05  CO  O CO  'o5 
O 05  Cl  05  O 

lO  L'  CO  r-i  ^ 

L'  lO  CO  1 ft 

^ C*5  w 

30  CC  CO  O LC 

1 r<  Cl  d 

X CC  lO  d CO 

tH 

L- 

-0  Jp 

0 

Cl, 

1-  CO  1'  t'-  L- 

CO  CO  CO  O'  Cl  1 

1 CO  to  d O CO 

-r  L*.  L't  '-di 

d 

Cl 

Gain  in 
Live 
Weight. 

X 

3 

O lO  lO  1 ' o 
Cl  >—1  Cl  -rh  Cl 
Cl  Cl  Cl  d Cl 

LO  d ^ Cl 

X’X’  :^::^ 

L-  Cl  to  t-  1— 
CO  <35  O CO  Cl 
1— < Cl  Cl  — 

Cl  r-  to  r-  tc 

d d Cl  Cl  rH 
-Cl  LO  lO  d -rM 

1 

(X 

c^ 

LO 

ICI 

Weiglit 
at  End  of 
Period. 

72 

3 

d 

L-  O O d Cl 
CO  Cl  05  1 C 

<05  05  O 05  -o 
Cl  d CO  Cl  CO 

o lo  to  o ! 

^ 1— i CO  Cl  , 

O O 1 — 1 — •— ' ! 
CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  ’ 

i 

o Cl  o Cl  t- 
CX)  CO  d 1'-  tM 
^ d CO  CO  Cl 
CO  CO  CO  CO  CO 

X’  2\X 

d Cl  d Cl  l'- 
00  CO  Cl  -'ti 

t-H  d CO  CO  d 
CO  CO  CO  CO  CO 

X 

Cl 

LO 

CO 

d 

rH 

d 

tH 

rH 

■ 

; |-li 

5?  03^ 

d:  0 

■J, 

'H 

5 

0 

d 

\N 

L'  1(0  LO  lO  Cl 
rH  d 05  -^CO 
1-  t-  L’  1^  CO 
d d Cl  Cl  Cl 

1'  O O Cl  Cl 
CO  rt<  Cl  <05  lO 
(05  (05  O 05  O 
Cl  Cl  CO  Cl  CO 

Cl  O to  LO  o 
^ o 22 

CO  X CO  CO  CO 

X X 

— d C5  ^ CO 
1-  1 - t~  00 

Cl  Cl  Cl  Cl  Cl 

x' 

tH 

1 

X 

CO  . 

d 

rH 

No. 

of 

Wetli- 

ers. 

1 

Cl  Cl  d CO  CO 
d d Cl  Cl  Cl 

■ d Cl  Cl  CO  CO  1 
; Cl  Cl  Cl  Cl  Cl  1 

Cl  Cl  Cl  CO  CO 
Cl  Cl  d Cl  Cl 

Cl  Cl  d CO  CO 
Cl  Cl  Cl  Cl  Cl 

Cl 

!I3  ' 
^ 1 

: >>  ; . 
. ctf  ^ c6 

:■=  fe 

rt  ' 

""  ...  Q 


O) 


. o 

.>u> 

. o 'p  o o 

• I >. 

• OoOg 

CO  3 i-n  d 
jd  d tie 


® ® 2 


cq  CO  lo 


o o 

di  . 

l;  S 

^ Q ^ 

^gcogH 


1'^ 

• ^ 

■0 

fl 

. c6  • d 

ci 

;-4 

d 

cc 

be 

: ^ 3 t. 

. ^ .7“ 

O) 

0 

C/! 

d 

O) 


O cO  fl 
c/3  ^ CO 
-(J  . 
cO  d cO 
CD  2 0) 
d3  gdJ 


O o o 

o'^  a 

fn  ^ 

cO  CO  11^ 

OfflS 


: t>5  . >1  . 

• cO  ^ cO  . 

•.d  Ch 

^ ■ > u 

d :.2  >.S  ^ 

S -'o  O fl 

^ * ■ '■^ 

S So  fl  ^ d "2 

d3  cO  ^ cO  tc 

^ 1d  d t>; 


t3 

S ' 

CC  • ;_ 
tiC  I (I) 
d • > 

’d  !.S 

S •'o 

£ 

^ =5 

-d  co 

. -1-3 

c3  r"  cO 
03  2 O) 


^ ^ ^ CO  cO  ^ rd  O ^ 

^ O^OCQ^ 


- 

CC  (T) 

-C  5-1  ir 

^ >1 

® O O 

O o 

“■§■3 

■gSa 

co 

-kJ  X 

cO  cO^ 

cm!^ 


Cl  CO  -t<  o 


-d 

'i  g.-= 

Oh  g'JlS 

■0°  j 3 

d QO  ® ,d 

o oi  ^ d 
O) 

c» 


d 

.2  o 
d^(M  . 

Q • rd 

9 ® 


?H 

d i ^ 

S\a 

d ° 

a|o 

co  i; 

d 35 
tiC  be 
!S  CO 

03  0) 

, > > 

l*< 


TABLE  II.— Food  Eaten  and  Cost  of  Food  for  Wethers. 


SHEEP  FEEDING 


9 


^ . 

^ c c c 

ji 

•0;  I--  rH  -H  0 

1 CO  -H  C:  rH  01 

— ' rH  -H  L'-  Cl 

X T1  0 L'  10 

0 

■’xa^  5 c6 

§ 

1"  Ci  00  lO  X) 

OI  lO  r-i  CO  rH 

CO  00  03  GO  rH 

-H  d X Cp' 

. X ' 

C^Ph^ 

0. 

ri^  rT'  r.t 

0 00  tH  QC  tC 
tH  tH 

CO  X LO  Lo' d 

■CO  CO  d lO'f- 

X 

C 

X 

— ' -4"  10 

00  Ci  1— 1 ^ 

rH  CO  CO  03 

X H-  rH  rH  to 

1 0 

01  01  01  01  rH 

to  CO  l - L - CO 

to  0 CO  CO  CO 

-H  to  lO  to  di 

I to 

D- 

■ ll 

0 

^ rH  tH  ^ 1—1 

r—y  H tH  rH  rH 

I-H  1 — 1 1— ( ^ 1 — t 

r-H  T— I r— 1 rH  rH 

1 1 — 1 j I 

S ad  cb 

t—  CO  00  'O  rH 

CO  r-  1-  03 

»0  rH  fH  C:) 

X i 

C 

J2 

01  CO  Ol  -— 1 (CQ 

00  — rH  00  to 

L-  rH  CO  rH  rH 

CO  X Cl  L-  Cl 

X ' 

w 

“.S 

0 

0 

1 1 tH  1 1 T— 1 T—\ 

to  CO  CO  rH  Oi 

lO  rH  CO  CO  CO 

X*  X X ci  rH 

X-  1 

- i 

CO  00  0 -rri 

CO  0 03  01 

CO  rH  03  to  rH 

X Cl  0 10 

03  i 

. 00^ 

s 

(M  Ol  0 00  0 

rH  — i CO  C-  C3 

to  03  rH  Cl  lO 

03  CD  X 03-10 

i 

L. 

> 

0 

-C 

rH  1— 1 — 00  0 

03  0 OT  rH  1’ 

trr  (Cl  Cl  OX 

rH  X X rH  tfi 

d i! 

ca 

U 

r— ^ rH 

rH  104  Ol  rH  Cl 

rH  1— 1 rH  rH  rH 

rH  rH  — ( rr  rH 

M 

T— 1 .— I T— 1 I— 1 1— 1 

00000 

00000 

tH  y—\  tH  0 0 

X 

S.£>’  - 

:C 

1 -HH  -HH  'H'  ■H^  rH 

00000 

00000 

GO  00  QO  X 00 

0 

X 

^•"c 

Sm 

1 

1 

tH  tH  rH  rH 

1 — 1 rH  rH  1 — 1 rH 

X 

1 

^ C 

did- 

. — 

Ol  iO  OC  T— 1 t-H 

rH  CD  to  rH  00 

to  rH  lO  rH  lO 

rH  rH  0 X X 

Cl 

:L  0 

;> 

X 

CO  0 'X)  rH  rH 

CO  Cl  rH  0 00 

0 rH  rH  0 X 

X X rH  rH  03 

Cl 

1 

0 

0 

CO  CO  CO  CO  CO 

CO  CO  CO  CO  Cl 

X X X Cl  Cl 

X X X X ci 

x' 

1 

_ 

rH  1— 1 !-l  CC  CO 

CO  CO  CO  rH  rH 

Cl  Cl  Cl  X X 

03  03  03  X to 

t- 

00  00  00  CO  00 

rH  rH  — rH  rH 

03  03  03  Cl  Cl 

X X X to  tC 

tr 

01  Ol  (M  01  Ol 

CO  CO  CO  CO  CD 

tr  X X 

XXXl-t— 

to 

0 

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t-H  rH  rH  rH  T-t 

X 

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fl 

X 1 

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0 0 to  0 to 

X X 0 to  0 

to  0 0 0 0 

■to  1 

s 

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0) 

L’  G<J  L-  CO  tH 

rH  rH  d 1-  00 

r^  X 0 X CO 

CI  d 0 rH  X 

rH 

5 t 

rH  rH  rH  rH 

0 0 rH  03  00 

rH  rH  to  rH  X 

03  03  rH  X rH 

X 

CC 

w 

wl 

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01  01  01  01  01 

Cl  Cl  Cl  rH  r-i 

Cl  Cl  Cl  C l Cl 

X X t-  X X 

rH 

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0 X rH  X X 

0 0 rH  L-  rH 

X 

CC 

tH  d tH  Ol  rH 

rH  rH  CO  rH  LO 

1-  CO  CO  CO  L- 

X X r-4  X tr 

X 

M 

rH  rH  r-  rH  rH 

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lO  lO  LO  lO  0 

10  0 10  to  LO 

to  to  X X X 

to  0 to  to  0 

to 

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r3l 

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Cl  Cl  Cl  Cl  Cl 

X X X X X 

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Cl  Cl  d X X 1 

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10 


MONTAKA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


DISCUSSION  OF  RESULTS. 


; - ^ WEIGHT  OF  WETHERS. 

Xable  No.  1 gives  the  weights  and  gains  of  eaeh  lot  of  weth- 
hrs  for  each  of  three  periods  and  for  the  vrhole  time  of  the  test, 
95  days.  The  table  shows  that  the  most  rapid  gains  were  made 
during  the  earlier  and  later  periods  of  the  test,  the  first  month  of 
the  feeding  test  and  the  last  month. 

; ‘ , Comparing  the  different  rations,  the  barley  seemed  to  give 
the  most  rapid  gains  throughout  all  the  periods.  For  the  whole 
Time' of  feeding  each  wether  in  this  lot  gained  27.29  pounds  each. 
The  lot  fed  oats  and  clover  gained  23.86  pounds  for  each  wether. 
The  lot  fed  wheat  and  clover  gained  23.07  pounds  each  or  about 
three-quart  res  of  a pound  less  than  Tbe  iot  ted  oats.  Wheat 
.screenings  gave  a gain  of  21.02  pounds  and  the  mixed  grain  ra- 
tion'a:  gain  of  18.04  pounds  for  each  wether  for  the  95  days. 

; The  average  of  the  whole  flock  of  112  head  shows  that  the 
’ -tvethers  weighed  1231^  pounds  at  the  beginning  of  the  test,  they 
weighed  146  ]:)ounds  at  its  close,  this  gaining  on  the  average  22^{ 
.rpQuiids  each. 

The  table  shows  the  daih'  gain  for  each  lot,  and  for  each 
'wether,  and  also  the  weekh^  gain  for  each  wether,  both  by 
periods  and  for  the  wdiole  time  of  the  experiment. 


i;:  i AMOUNT  OF  FOOD  EATEN  BY  WETHERS. 

' Table  No.  2 gives  the  amount  of  food  eaten  by  the  wethers 
and  also  the  cost  of  the  food.  The  results  in  this  table  are  also 
given  by  periods  and  for  the  whole  time  of  the  feeding  test. 

' . The  amount  of  food  eaten  per  day  shows  that  for  the  first 
period  a larger  proportion  of  clover  was  eaten  than  for  the  next 
two  ])eriods,  but  this  was  to  be  expected  from  the  smaller  grain 
ration.  For  the  second  and  third  periods,  about  three  pounds  of 
.hay  ]jer  da^'  on  the  average  were  eaten.  The  average  for  the  95 
•t^ays '.shows  about  314  pounds  of  ha}'  eaten  per  day  and  about 
eight -tenths  pounds  of  grain.  Comparing  the  difi'erent  rations. 


SHEEP  FEEDING. 


11 


the  wethers  fed  oats  ate  slightly  the  most  and  those  fed  the  mix- 
tnre  of  grain  the  least  clover  per  day. 


FOOD  EATEN  FOR  EACH  POUND  OF  GAIN  BY  WETHERS. 

The  pounds  of  food  recpiired  for  each  pound  of  gain  in  live 
weight,  is  the  most  valuable  test  of  the  efhcieney  of  a ratio.  On 
the  average  of  all  the  lots  it  required  close  to  13V2  pounds  of 
clover  and  Sis  pounds  of  grain  to  produce  1 pound  of  gain  in  live 
weight.  The  lot  fed  on  barley  required  the  least  food  for  each 
pound  of  gain,  viz. : 10.9  pounds  of  clover  and  2.79  pounds  of 

grain.  Oats,  wheat,  screenings  and  the  mixed  grain  rations  fol- 
low in  the  order  named.  It  will  be  noted  that  less  food  was 
required  for  1 pound  of  gain  during  the  first  period  than  at  any 
later  time,  though  the  grain  ration  was  smallest  at  that  period. 
This  may  be  explained  by  the  general  experience  that  less  food  is 
required  in  the  earlier  than  in  the  late  periods  of  fattening. 


COST  OF  FOOD  EATEN  BY  WETHERS. 

The  cost  of  a ration  is  not  always  a safebasisof  comparison, 
as  prices  vary  from  year  to  year  and  in  different  localities.  The 
amount  of  food  for  each  pound  of  gain  is  always  a safe  basis, 
and  thus  each  person  can  calculate  for  himself  the  cost  of  feeding- 
in  his  x^articular  localiffv.  On  the  basis  given  in  this  bulletin,  it 
cost  on  the  average  6.3c  for  each  pound  of  gain  made  by  the 
Avethers.  The  cheapest  gains  were  those  made  on  the  ration  of 
barley,  viz.:  5.37c  jjer  pound.  Next  came  oats,  costing  6.1c, 
wheat  6.22c,  screenings  6.48c  and  the  mixed  grain  7.65c  for  each 
pound  of  gain.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  arrangement  of  the 
’lots  on  the  basis  of  th.t  amount  of  food  for  each  pound  of  gain 
was  the  same  as  given  for  the  cost  of  the  feeding. 


TABLE  III.— Weight  and  Gains  of  Lambs. 


12 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


Table  IV. — Food  Eaten  and  Cost  of  Food  for  Lambs. 


SHEEP  FEEDING 


13 


X 

o 

or 

One 

Pound 

Gain 

Cents 

Cb  Cl  CO  CO 
L^  O 00  t-H  o 

Cl  Cl  Cl  CO 

H Cl  lO  H 00 
t--  Cl  CO  0 00 

lO  lO  0 lO  0 

Cl  Cl  GO  H LO 
0 CO  H 0 H 

»0  LO  0 0 CO 

'H  0 0 LO  -- 
0 LO  lO  0 X 

j rH  rH  LO  lO  rH 

0 
j rH 

rH 

J2 

X 

r-  LO  lO  CO 

Cl  t-  0 0 0 

Cl  H H Cl  00 

rH  Cl  rH  0 d 

1 rH 

X 

00  05  Cb  O Oi 

H CO  CO  H lO 

C<  CO  CO  H CO 

rH  d Cl  Cl  d 

1 

t-H 

tH  rH  rH  H 1— 1 

tH  rH  rH  rH  ^ 

rH  rH  rH  rH 

T • 

■c 

Cl  1-  'Cl  CO 

0 t-  CO  l O IC 

00  H 00  rH  0 

Cl  Cl  0 0 1- 

IrH 

c 

3 

'S 

CO  CO  Cl  CO  CO 

0 0 Cl  00  0 

»0  0 0 CM  0 

X 0 0 rH  X 

rH 

^-5^  - 

0 

P 

rH  rH  rH  rH  rH 

H CO  L--  CO  > 0 

H H H H Cl 

C 1 CO  X CO  Cl 

X 

H 

3 S 

-r' 

3 33 

t-  t-  CO  05 

CO  rH  lO  lO  0 

' 0 H X to  Cl 

X rH  0 0 d 

X 

J 

Cl  'Cl  O re  CO 

00  CO  QO  0 H 

t 0 0 0 

1'  0 lO  tH  0 

0 

c 

p 

P 

t-  1-  L’  L'-  L- 

00  1-  H t"  0 

i X X X;  lO 

1 - 0 X L-- 

X 

rH 

S 

1 T-i.  T— 1 ,— 1 rH  rH 

0 3 0 0^ 

0 0 0 0 0 

rH  rH  tH  rH  i— ^ 

i ^ 

cC 

i S 

rC  'H  HI  -C  HI 
’ 

0 0 0 0 0 

! X X GO  GC  GO 

X 

'*Z  ; 

c 
>;  k3 

0 

P 

T— ( I-H  T— 1 r-^ 

rH  fH  tH  rH  1— ( 

P -op 

1 

1 

^p7 

^ 1 

i GO  Cl  — CO  1' 

! 0 0 LO  L-  00 

H 0 X — 1 X 

Cl  -H  F-^  (C5  rH 

lO 

C J rt 

Si  1 
? 

Cl  CO  HI  CO  Cl 

0 0 0 0 GO 

0X000 

0 0 rH  0 0 

! 0 

ppp 

2 

1 ^ . 

Cl  Cl  Cl  Cl  Cl 

rH  tH  Cl  Cl  — 

' rH  rH  rH  ^ tH 

1 

Cl  ci  Cl  Cl  d 

I Cl 

3 j 

j tH  T— 1 1 — 1 1 — 1 rH 

o CO  TO  CO  ' 

lO  Cl  Cl  Cl  Cl 

Cl  0 0 0 0 

X 

1 

1 j 

CO  QO  00  GO  00 

r— i rH  1— ( tH 

L’  0 0 0 0 

l'-  X X X X 

d 

Cl  Cl  C- 1 Cl  Cl 

0 0 0 0 0! 

L-  L-  1-  l-  L- 

0 0>  CO  0 0 

rH 

P ! 

hP 

1 

tH  rH  rH  rH  rH 

X 

0^ 

3 

iC  33  ro  o O 

0 lO  lO  lO  lO  1 

0 0 0 lO  0 

ic  lO  0 0 lO 

lO 

> 

s 

^ ' 

IC  QO  rtl  Cb  1.0 

Cl  0 r-  lo  1 

H 1-  rH  0 

0 1-  X X o 

^ i 

lO  »0  b3>  ‘O  lO 

rH  Cl  Cl  Cl  H 1 

H H lO  LO  LO 

rH  d rH  X C-l 

lO 

r^ 

p 

r—  , — 1 1 — 1 r H , — 1 

H rH  rH  H H 

rH  rH  rH  rH  rH 

rH  -rH  -rH  rH  HI 

Cl 

lO  O lO  0 lO  ’ 

0 LO  LO  LO  LO  ! 

lO  0 0 »0  0 

’ 0 LO  0 0 0 

LO 

X 

0 HI  t'  CO  O ' 

Cl  0 0-1  — CO  1 

lO  0 0 H X 

j rH  0 0 0 X 

lO 

C 

7Z 

7 i 

Cl  Cl  H C 1 d 

lO  H H H lO  1 

0 0 LO  0 0 

rH  X rH  Cl  rH  • 

• 0 

tSH 

c 

P ! 

1 rH  rH  tH  rH  rH 

0 

s 

. 1 

. 1 

O O O 0 lO  I 

O O O O'  o 

O 0 0 0 0 1 

lO  0 0 0 LO 

0 

> 

1 

s 1 

Cl  Cl  Cl  d H ‘ 

O 05  C5r  O 

0 X X 5C  X 1 

0 rH  rH  rH  X 

0 

e 1 

1 

00  CO  OO  00  00  i 

CO  CO  CO  CO  CO 

0 rH  1 — 1 rH  rH 

0 0 0 0 0 

rH 

p2-i  i 

‘-^  i 

rH  I-H  rH  iP  I— 1 j 

1-H  tH  I— 1 1— ! 1-H 

Cl  Cl  Cl  Cl  Cl 

iO  lO  lO  lO  lO 

X 

1 

1 

1 

Cl 

• « 55  ^ 

• 0)  <D 

• O P O « 

• ^ CO 


•-d  otJ 
: p 


be 


W4 


kJ  ^ 


o 

o o 


O)  o 

>|cO 


P 

t3  O 'd 

=«  ««  be 

b>  i5  ^ S 

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fn  t> 

p O 

o 'o 


O ^ 

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p t>;  ce  ” 5? 

<V  ci  <D  ^ ^ 

rP  ^ fP  b 

OPQ 


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■p  . O P o 9 

i PS“a 

S ■'§“'§’3 

te 

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0|  C'l  P 

1^  O Q di 

.P?^  ^ 

fo 


Cl  c.: 


lO 


Cl  CO  -Cl 


Cl  CO  ^ »c 


03 

c 

"C  p 

0;  O X 

^ ^ c. 

Oi  . Cd 

^ P co,^ 


^ w 

?Q 


03 

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Ch  '*^  lO  X 

o , C l E>^ 
Q,  Pi  .CO 

03  P 

.31 


a . 

H 

CO 
O Q 
O lC 


14 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


WEIGHT  OF  LAMBS. 

Table  3 shows  the  weights  and  gains  of  lambs,  by  periods 
and  for  eaeh  lot.  The  lambs  averaged  70  ponnds  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  test  and  95  pounds  at  its  close,  thus  gaining  25 
pounds  in  95  dav'S. 

Lot  1,  ted  on  screenings,  made  the  largest  gain,  viz. : 27.24 

pounds,  followed  by  the  lot  fed  on  mixed  grain,  27.14  pounds, 
the  wheat  fed  lot  gained  251/3  pounds,  the  barley  fed  lot  gained  241^ 
pounds  and  the  oats  fed  lot  gained  20.9  pounds.  The  lowest 
r/a/Vp  gain  w^as  made  by  the  lot  fed  oats,  each  lamb  gaining  but 
.22  of  a pound.  The  highest  daily  gain  was  by  the  lot  fed  screen- 
ings, vdz : .287  pounds  per  day.  The  lambs  fed  screenings 

gained  2714  pounds  for  the  95  days  while  those  fed  oats  gained 
only  20.9  pounds.  The  average  for  all  lots  was  .263  pounds 
per  day. 

Considering  the  results  by  periods  it  will  be  noted  that  the 
fastest  gain  on  the  average  was  made  during  the  first  perod  and 
the  slowest  during  the  second  period. 


AMOUNT  OF  FOOD  EATEN  BY  LAMBS. 

Table  No.  4 gives  the  food  eaten  and  the  cojt  of  the  food 
for  eaeh  period  and  for  the  whole  95  days,  by  lots. 

On  the  average  each  lamb  ate  2.05  pounds  of  clover  and  .81 
pounds  of  grain  per  day.  There  was  not  a very  great  difference 
between  the  amounts  eaten  by  the  different  lots.  Those  fed  oats 
ate  the  most  clover  and  those  fed  the  mixed  grain  ration  the  least. 


FOOD  EATEN  FOR  EACH  POUND  OF  GAIN  BY  LAMBS. 

The  food  eaten  for  each  pound  of  gain  on  the  average  was 
8.03  pounds  clover  and  3.11  pounds  of  grain.  The  lot  fed 
screenings  required  the  least  food  for  each  pound  of  gain,  viz. : 
7.73  pounds  of  clover  and  2.82  pounds  of  grain.  The  mixed 
grain  ration,  wheat,  barley  and  oats  follow  in  the  order  named. 
Oats  would  appear  to  be  the  least  efficient  ration  in  fattening- 


SHEEP  FEEDING. 


15 


lambs,  while  screenings  and  the  mixed  grain  rations  appear  to  be 
the  most  efficient. 


COST  OF  FOOD  EATEN  BY  FAMES. 

As  stated  above,  while  the  money  cost  of  a ration  does  not 
alwa^^s  afford  n safe  comparison,  yet  it  is  an  interesing  one,  at 
least  to  the  local  people,  when  prices  are  similar  to  those  given 
in  the  experiment.  On  the  average  it  cost  about  4V2  cents  per 
pound  for  each  pound  of  gain  made  b^'  those  lambs  during  the  95 
days  of  the  test.  The  lowest  cost  was  with  the  lahdis  fed  on 
screenings,  viz. : 4.04  cents  per  pound.  The  highest  cost  was 

with  oats,  viz. : 5V^  cents,  or  nearly  cents  per  pound  more 

than  for  the  screenings  ration.  This  is  explained  by  the  fact 
that  the  screenings  wms  not  alone  the  most  efficient  but  also  the 
cheapest. grain  ration.  The  wheat  ration  at  the  price  given  pro- 
duced gain  at  I/2  cent  per  pound  less  than  did  the  barley  ration, 
or  4.5c  per  pound  for  wheat  ration  and  5e  for  the  barle}'  ration. 
The  mixed  grain  ration  produced  1 pound  of  gain  at  a cost  of 
4.5  cents  per  pound,  thus  costing  about  }4  of  a cent  more  per 
pound  than  for  the  screenings. 


COMPARISON  OF  LAMBS  AND  WETHERS,  THE  GAIN  AND 

COST  OF  GAIN. 


A comparison  of  the  results  in  feeding  the  lambs  and  wethers, 
brings  out  some  interesting  facts  as  the  table  shows. 


1 

Food  Eat('n 

Per  Day. 

Gain  Per 

Total  1 

(\).st  of 

( 'ost  of 

Total  Cost 

I 

Day  Per 

Gain  Per 

Food  Per 

One  Lb. 

of  Gain  - 

1 

Clover,  1 

Grain.  , 

Sheep. 

Slie<!p. 

Day. 

of  Gain 

Per  Sheep. 

Lambs.  . . 

2.05  lbs.  . 

.81  ll)s. 

1 

.263  ll)s. 

25.  lt>s. 

1.21c 

4 . 49c 

$1.13 

Wethers.. 

3.22  tt)s. 

i 1 

.806  lbs. 

.238  lbs, 

25.6  tt)s 

1.5c 

6.. 30c 

SI. 43 

16 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


The  wethers  ate  practieally  the  same  amount  of  grain  as 
did  the  lambs,  but  they  ate  1.17  pounds  more  elover  hay  per  da3^ 
The  lambs  gained  21^  pounds  more  for  the  95  da^'S,  even 
though  they  ate  less  food.  The  cost  of  each  pound  of  gain  for 
the  wethers  was  6.3  cents  while  for  the  lambs  it  was  about  4.5 
cents  or  1.8  cents  less  for  the  lambs.  For  the  95  da\^s  the 
feed  of  the  wethers  cost  $1.42  each,  while  that  of  the  lambs  cost 
$1.13  or  29c  less.  ’ 

Considering  the  gains  onh^,  the  lambs  were  much  the  more 
economic  feeders,  it  costing  with  100  lambs  $29.00  less  to  pro- 
duce 2,500  pounds  of  gain  than  for  100  wethers  to  produce  2,266 
pounds  of  gain  in  live  weight.  However,  because  of  their  size 
and  the  cheaper  rate  at  which  the}'  were  purchased,  the  wethers 
proved  to  be  the  most  profitable  to  feed  as  will  be  noted  later. 


GAINS  MADE  BY  LAMBS  AND  WETHERS  FOR  THE 
VARIOUS  PERIODS. 


Another  interesting  comparison  is  in  the  gains  made  for  the 
A'arious  periods  by  the  lambs  and  wethers. 

For  the  first  period  of  31  da^'s  the  wethers  on  the  average 
made  faster  gains  than  did  the  lambs.  For  the  2nd  and  3rd 
periods  the  lambs  on  the  average  gained  the  more  rapid!}'.  The 
young  and  growing  animal  maintained  the  rate  of  gain  better 
than  did  the  more  mature  animal. 


COMPARATIVE  VALUES  OF  GRAIN  RATIONS  FOR  LAMBS 
AND  WETHERS. 


It  is  noticeable  that  the  best  grain  ration  for  the  lambs  did 
not  prove  the  best  ration  for  the  wethers.  With  the  lambs  the 
wheat  screenings  proved  to  be  the  best  grain  ration,  recjuiring the 
least  grain  I’or  each  pound  of  gain  and  making  the  fastest  gains. 
The  mixed  grain  is  a very  close  second.  Not  alone  is  the  ration 


FK;.  1.  SHEEP-FEEDING  YARDS  AND  SHED.  LAMBS  ON  THE  RIGHT 
WETHERS  ON  THE  l.EFT 


FIG.  ‘.F  I'll  I',  'l'\  PI',  Ol'  WI-'.'I'HI.P  FED 


SHEEP  FEEDING. 


17 


of  screenings  efficient  but  it  is  also  a cheap  ration,  producing  a 
pound  of  gain  for  4.04  eents  while  the  mixed  grain  ration  cost 
4.3  cents. 

These  results  accord  with  pervious  tests  at  this  Station  as 
reported  in  bulletins  No.  31  and  39.  Experiments  conducted  by 
the  writer  at  the  Utah  Station  show  the  same  results ; the  screen- 
ings proved  the  most  effieient  ration  for  lambs.  The  results 
from  feeding  the  w^ethers,  however,  have  another  story  to  tell. 
Neither  the  screenings,  nor  the  mixed  grain  proved  as  efficient  or 
as  eheap  rations  as  the  various  grains,  in  faet  they  were  the  least 
effieient  rations  fed.  With  the  wethers,  the  barle\^  ration  gave 
the  best  returns,  but  with  the  lambs  it  was,  next  to  the  oats,  the 
least  efficient  ration  fed.  With  the  lambs  the  oats  ration  gave 
much  the  poorest  returns,  but  with  the  wethers  was  next  to  the 
barley  in  effieiency  and  cheapness;  wheat  oceupies  an  intermediate 
point  with  both  lambs  and  wethers.  I will  not  attempt  to 
reconcile  these  apparent  contradictions.  They  seem  to  teach 
that  a ration  capable  of  giving  the  best  results  with  lambs  may 
not  be  the  best  for  wethers  and  mature  stock.  There  is  room 
here  for  further  investigation. 


THE  CLOVER  WASTE. 


It  will  be  noticed  from  tables  2 and  4 that  there  is  consider- 
able waste  from  feeding  the  elover.  To  get  the  sheep  to  eat  as 
much  as  possible,  they  can  not  be  forced  to  eat  the  clover  too 
elosely,  otherwise  they  will  not  eat  as  mueh  nor  do  as  well. 
Again,  much  of  this  clover  was  from  the  first  eutting  after  seed- 
ing and  thus  there  w^as  considerable  old  stubble  in  the  hay.  The 
Avaste  from  the  w^ethers  was  6,830  pounds,  or  nearly  3V2  tons, 
this  was  161/2  per  cent  of  the  hay  fed.  The  waste  from  the 
lambs  was  6,655  pounds,  a little  less  than  from  the  wethers,  but 
a larger  per  eent  of  the  amount  fed,  namely,  23.6  per  cent.  As 
this  waste  was  fed  to  cattle  and  horses  and  praetically  all  eaten, 
the  sheep  are  not  charged  with  it. 


18 


MOXTAXA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


TABLE  V.  — Lamb  Feeding.  Summary  and  Financial  Results  1902=3. 


Fed  95  Days. 

Lot  1 
Fed  Clo- 
ver aud 
Wheat 
Screen- 
ings. 

Lot  2. 
Fed 
Clover 
and 
Wheat. 

Lot  3. 
F(‘d 
Clover 
and  Oats 

Lot  4. 
Fed 
Clover 
and 

Barley. 

Lot  7), 
Fed 
("lover 
and 
Grain 
Mixture. 

Total. 

NimibpT  of  lambs 

21 

22 

22 

22 

22 

109 

Wpipbf,  at  bpt»iTniinir 

1105  tbs 

1555  Tt)S 

1555  ttjs 

1597  tt)S 

1525  tbs 

7635  tbs 

*Cost  of  iamb  at  *2.57c  per  It)., 
(vost  of  food  aud  cost  of  feed- 
ing eacli  lamb 

S36.12 

822. J 5 

839.96 

825 . 50 

839.96 

825.29 

839.96 

82(5 . 96 

839.20 
825.50  1 

8196.20 

8125.40 

'^Potnl  post  of  Innibs 

865.4(5 
21.12  tbs 

8(55 . 25 
2015  tt)s 

866.92 
2132  tT)S 

864.70  1 
2122  tt)S 

8321 . 60 

Weight  at  close  of  test 

1977  tbs 

10360  tt)s 

Net  gain 

572  ttjs 

557  tt)S 

460  tT)s 

535  tbs 

597  tt)S 

2722  tbs 

Ctain  per  lamb 

27  tt)s 

25  tt)s 

21  tt)S 

24  tT)S 

27  tt)s 

25  tbs 

t Received  for  lambs  if  sold  at 
4yCc  per  pound 

888  90 

895 . 04- 

890 . 67 

895.94 
829.  (J2 

895  49 

8456 . 10 

Proht  on  feeding 

'830.(59 

829 . 58 

825.42 

830.79 

8144,50 

Profit  on  feeding  one  lamb . . . 

81.55 

81.34 

81.15 

81.32 

81.40" 

81.32 

Weight  of  lambs  in  Chicago. . 

9569  tbs 

Loss  in  shipping 

792  tbs 

Per  cent  loss  in  shipping 

7.6  PrCt 

Received  for  lambs  at 
per  Tt) . . . . 

8693.70 

:j;Total  cost  of  shipping  with 
commission 

881.52 

Cost  of  shipping  one  lamb..  . . 

. 75 

Value  of  five  lambs  lost 

835 . 08 

Net  returns  for  lambs 

8577 . 10 

Cost  of  lambs  and  feed 

8321.60 

Profit  on  feeding 

$255.50 

Profit  on  feeding  one  lamb.  . . 

82.34 

*At  .1?1.80  ('uch  or  a?;  calculated  2.57  cents  per  pound. 

tTlie  price  at  which  many  lambs  were  sold  in  the  valley  last  winter. 

jThis  is  calculated  on  the  basis  that  the  cost  of  ship})inf>'  Svould  be  in  proportion  to  weii^lit 
of  lamb>. 


THE  FINANCIAL  RESULTS  WITH  LAMBS. 


AVe  helve  next  to  consider  the  hnaneial  results  and  the  record 
of  the  experiences  from  shipping  the  car  of  lambs  and  wethers  to 
Chicago.  Table  5 gives  the  exj^erience  with  the  landDs.  This 
table  will  repa\'  careful  study.  The  table  is  arranged  to  show, 
first,  the  returns  if  the  lambs  had  been  sold  to  dealers  at  Boze- 
man, as  many  of  the  feeders  in  the  valley  did.  The  profit  per 


19 


shp:ep  feeding. 


lamb  ranged  from  $1.15  for  the  lot  fed  on  oats  to  $1.55  for  the 
lot  fed  on  screenings.  Considering  the  109  lambs,  the  purchas- 
ing price  was  |1 96.20.  The  cost  of  the  feed  was  $125.40,  mak- 
ing a total  cost  for  lambs  and  feed  of  $321.60.  The  returns 
for  the  lambs  if  sold  at  4V2C  per  pound  live  weight,  would  have 
been  $456.10.  This  would  mean  a return  of  $144.50  as  profit 
and  pay  for  labor  and  care  in  looking  after  the  lambs,  or  $1.32 
for  each  lamb  fed.  The  cost  of  feeding  is  not  considered  in 
these  results,  as  in  a feeding  experiment  the  labor  cost  is  necessar- 
ily excessive.  Figuring  from  the  facts  given  by  Mr  Broox 
Martin  as  quoted  in  a later  part  of  this  bulletin,  the  labor  cost, 
including  every  item  of  expense,  is  not  over  25c  for  each  lamb  or 
sheep  fed.  This  would  leave  a net  profit  of  $1.07  for  each  lamb. 


THE  SHIPPING  EXPERIENCE. 


The  next  part  of  the  table  shows  the  results  obtained  from 
shipping  the  lambs  to  Chicago.  The  lambs  were  weighed  two 
days  before  being  shipped  and  this  was  taken  as  the  shipping 
weight.  They  were  loaded  on  the  car  in  the  morning,  being  driven 
about  two  miles  to  the  loading  chute. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  they  lost  792  pounds  on  their  journey, 
or  7.6  per  cent  of  their  home  weight.  In  Chicago  the  lambs  sold 
for  714  cents  per  pound,  and  after  deducting  the  vmlue  of  the  five 
lambs  lost,  returned  $658.62.  The  cost  of  shipping,  with  com- 
mission and  all  expenses  figured  on  the  basis  stated,  was  $81.52, 
or  75c  for  each  lamb.  The  net  returns,  therefore,  were  $577.10. 
The  cost  of  the  lambs  and  the  feed  was  $321.60,  thus  the  profit 
on  the  feeding,  when  selling  at  Chicago  prices,  was  $255.50,  or 
$2.34  for  each  lamb.  As  will  be  noted  this  was  $1.00  more  per 
lamb  than  would  have  been  obtained  by  selling  in  Bozeman  at 
the  average  price  being  paid.  It  should  be  mentioned,  perhaps, 
as  will  be  noted  later,  that  as  these  lambs  were  fed  grain  nearly 
all  through  the  test  and  were  thus  in  extra  good  condition,  the^^ 
commanded  a premium  on  the  Chicago  market. 


20 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


TABLE  VI.— Feeding  Wethers.  Summary  and  Financial  Results  1902=3. 


Fed  Days. 

Lot  1. 
Fed  Clo- 
ver and 
Wheat 
Screen- 
ings. 

Lot  2. 
Fed 
Clover 
and 
Wheat. 

Lot  3. 
Fed 
Clover 
and  Oats 

Lot  4. 
Fed 
Clover 
ann 
Barley. 

Lot  .5. 
Fed 
Clover 
and 
Grain 
Mixture. 

Total. 

Number  of  Wethers 

Weight  at  beginning  of  test.. . 
*Cost  of  wethers  at  2.256c  per  lb 

Cost  of  food 

Total  cost  of  fatted  wethers . . 

Weight  at  close  of  test 

N et  gain 

Average  gain  per  wether 

fReceived  for  wethers  if  sold 
for  4c  per  R).  live  weight. . . 
Profit  on  feeding 

22 

2717  lt)s 
$61.30 
$19.88 
$81 . 18 
3180  lbs 
463  R)s 
21  Rjs 

$127.20 

$46.02 

99 

2725^ lbs 
$61.45 
$32.18 
$93.63 
3232  lbs 
507  lbs 
23  lbs 

$129.28 
$35 . 65 

22 

2795  lbs 
$63.04 
$32.18 
$95.22 
3320  lbs 
525  lbs 
24  ms 

$132.80 

$37.58 

23 

2745  lbs 
$61 . 95 
$32.18 
$94.13 
3372  lbs 
627  ms 
27  Tbs 

$134.88 

$40.75 

23 

2832  lt)s 
$63.85 
$30.30 
$94.15 
3247  lbs 
415  lbs 
18  Tbs 

$129.78 

$35.63 

112 

13814  Rjs 
$311.60 
$156.72 
$468.32 
16352  lbs 
2538  lt)s 
2266  1T)S 

$654.08 

$185.76 

Profit  on  one  wether 

$2.09 

$1.62 

$1.71 

$1.77 

$1.55 

$1.66 

Weight  of  wethers  in  Chicago 
Loss  of  weight  in  shipping. . . 

15190  Tbs 
1162  Rjs 
7.1PrCt 

$911.40 

$128.86 

$1.16 

$782.54 

$468.32 

$314.22 

$2.80 

Per  cent  loss  in  shipping 

Received  for  wethers  at  6c 
per  lb 

JTotal  cost  of  shipping  with 
commission 

Cost  of  shipping  one  wether. . 

Net  returns  for  wethers 

Cost  of  wethers  and  feed 

1 

Profit  on  feeding 

Profit  on  feeding  one  wether. 

i 

*Each  wether  cost  $2.80.  This  by  calculation  makes  21^^  cents  per  pound  live  weight. 
tThe  price  at  which  many  wethers  were  sold  in  the  valley  last  winter. 

iThis  is  calculated  on  the  basis  that  the  cost  of  shipping  would  be  in  proportion  to  the 
weight  of  the  wethers. 


THE  FINANCIAL  RESULTS  WITH  WETHERS. 


Table  6 shows  the  finaneial  results  with  the  wethers.  Selling' 
at  local  prices,  4c  per  pound,  the  lot  fed  screenings  returned  the 
largest  profit,  viz. : v$2.09  per  wether,  next  comes  the  barle^^ 

ration,  followed  by  oats,  Avheatand  the  mixed  grain  ration  in  the 
order  named.  The  price  paid  for  the  wethers  was  $2.80  each, 
but,  to  put  all  the  lots  on  an  equal  basis,  the  price  is  figured  at 


SHEEP  FEEDING. 


21 


2V4C  per  pound,  which  was  the  actual  price  paid  per  pound.  The 
cost  of  the  112  wethers  was  $311.60.  The  cost  of  the  feed  was 
$156.72,  making  the  total  cost  of  the  wethers  $468.32.  Had 
they  been  sold  at  4c  per  pound,  the  price  offered  by  dealers  in 
Bozeman,  they  would  have  brought  $654.08,  giving  a profit 
(which  would  include  pay  for  labor),  of  $185.76,  or  $1.66  profit 
on  each  wether.  This  shows  a larger  profit  on  the  wethers  than 
for  the  lambs  by  34c  each,  and  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
lambs  made  much  the  more  economic  gain  in  feeding,  as  is  noted 
in  another  place. 

The  explanation  of  this  is  given  in  the  following  table,  and  as 
will  be  noted,  it  is  due  to  the  increase  in  the  selling  price  of  the 
original  weight  of  the  sheep  and  also  to  the  difference  in  the 
original  weight  of  the  lambs  and  wethers. 

To  illustrate: 


A 123  lb.  wether  costs  at  2.256c  a lb $2.80 

And  the  22.6  lb.  gain  costs  at  6.3c  per  lb 1.42 


Thus  the  total  cost  of  the  wether  was  $4.22 

But  the  123  lb.  wether  sold  for  4.785c  a lb.  or 5.88 

And  the  22.6  lb.  gain  sold  for  4.785c  a lb.  or 1.10 


Thus  the  net  price  received  for  the  wether  was  ...$6.98 

This  represents  a loss  of  32c  on  the  increase  made  during  the 
fattening  period,  but  a gain  of  $3.08  on  the  original  weight  of 
the  wether,  or  a net  gain  of  $2.76.  The  profit  arose  from  the 
increased  value  given  to  the  original  123  pounds  of  the  wether 
by  adding  23  pounds  in  finishing  the  animal  for  market. 


For  the  lambs  the  results  are  as  follows : 

A 70  lb.  lamb  costs  at  2.57c  per  lb $1.80 

And  the  25  lbs.  gain  cost  at  4.49c  per  lb 1.13 


Or  a total  cost  per  lamb  of $2.93 

But  the  70  lb.  lamb  sold  for  5.573c  per  lb.  or 3.90 

And  the  25  lbs.  gain  sold  for  5.573c  per  lb.  or 1.39 


Or  a net  return  per  lamb  of $5.29 


22 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


This  represents  a profit  of  26e  on  the  gain  made  on  each 
lamb  dnring  the  fattening  period  and  a profit  of  $2.10  on  the 
original  weight  of  the  lamli.  This  is  98c  less  than  on  the  orig- 
inal weight  of  the  wether  although  the  lambs  increased  in  value 
8c  per  lb.  and  the  wethers  only  2V2  cents  per  pound.  Thus  the 
net  gain  in  value  on  the  lambs  was  $2.36  but  on  the  wethers 
$2.76  or  40c  more. 


THE  SHIPPING  EXPERIENCE.  ' 


Consider  next  the  experience  and  results  from  shipping  the 
wethers  to  Chicago.  They  were  handled  exactly  the  same  as 
the  lambs  and  shipped  in  the  same  car.  The  loss  of  weight  in 
shipping  was  1162  pounds  or  7.1  per  cent;  about  V2  per  cent  less 
than  for  the  lambs.  The  wethers  sold  at  6c  per  pound,  a total 
of  $911.40.  The  cost  of  shipping  on  the  basis  figured  was 
$128.86  for  the  112  head  or  $1.16  each.  This  left  a net  return 
of  $782.54.  The  cost  of  the  wethers  and  the  feed  was  $468.32. 
Thus  the  profit  on  the  feeding  was  $314.22  or  $2.80  each.  This 
was  $1.14  greater  profit  than  if  the  wethers  had  been  sold  at  the 
prices  prevailing  in  the  valley. 


COMMENTS  ON  THE  QUALITY  OF  THE  STOCK. 


The  quality' of  the  stock,  due  first  to  Mr.  John  Robinson’s 
careful  selection,  who  purchased  the  sheep  for  us,  and  next  to 
the  excellent  finish  given  them,  is  best  illustrated  by  quotations 
from  the  Chicago  live-stock  papers  which  are  appended. 


SHEEP  FEEDING. 


23 


WEEKLY  LIVE  STOCK  REPORT,  CHICAGO. 


RECORD  PRICES  FOR  MONTANAS. 

‘'On  F'rid ay,  March  6,  the  Montana  State  Experiment  Station 
marketed  at  Chicago  96  head  of  lambs  averaging  88  lbs.  at  $7.25, 
and  112  wethers  averaging  136  lbs.  at  $6.00.  These  prices  are 
the  highest  ever  paid  on  any  market  for  stock  raised  and  fed  in 
Alontana.  The  price  paid  lor  the  lambs  was  ecpial  to  the  best 
sale  of  the  season  tip  to  that  date,  and  the  wethers  also  brought 
the  highest  price  of  the  season  and  the  highest  paid  at  Chicago 
since  June  last  year,  when  the  same  figure  as  reached.  The 
wethers  were  purchased  by  Armour  & Co.,  and  the  lambs  by  the 
Schwarzschild  & Sulzberger  Packing  Co. 

“The  Schwarzschild  & Sulzberger  Co.  report  that  five  head 
of  lambs,  of  which  close  record  was  kept  for  test,  dressed  out 
54.8  per  cent.  As  50  to  52  per  cent  is  considered  a good  average 
showing,  it  will  be  seen  that  these  lambs  did  veiw  well.  Armour 
& Co.  report  that  five  head  of  wethers  dressed  51  per  cent.” 


CHICAGO  L1VE=ST0CK  WORLD. 


LAMBS  $7.25;  WETHERS  $6.00. 

MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION  MARKETS  TWO  SPLENDID  LOTS. 

“Conspieuous  in  the  somewhat  inferior  run  of  sheep  and 
lambs  today  were  two  bands  eonsigned  by  the  Alontana  Experi- 
ment Station  at  Bozeman,  Alont.,  that  furnished  a valuable 
object  lesson  to  feeders  on  the  advantage  of  finishing  stock  lie- 
fore  marketing.  ^ 

“On  a bad  market  the  lambs  were  bought  by  the  ‘S.  & S.’  at 
$7.25,  and  the  wethers  by  Armour  & Co.  at  $6.00,  the  latter 
being  the  highest  price  this  year.  Both  bands  will  be  subjected 
to  a dressing  test.  As  no  representative  of  the  Experiment 
Station  accompanied  the  shipment,  details  of  feeding  could  not 


24 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


be  obtained.  The  floek  was  greatly  admired  b^'  sheep  division 
talent.  * * * This  is  the  highest  price  ever  paid  for  native 

Montana  lambs  finished  in  the”state,  the  previous  high  spot  being 
$6.85  last  year.  It  is  the  highest  price  ever  paid  for  Montana 
wethers  by  a dollar. 

“The  lambs  brought  the  top  price  here  this  season  and  the 
wethers  25  cents  higher  than  the  previous  top. 

“Part  of  the  wethers  will  be  sent  to  Bermuda  to  furnish  the 
grade  of  mutton  suited  to  the  epicurean  taste  of  the  officers  of 
the  British  garrison  there.  They  were  fed  experimentally  on 
hay  and  grain.” 


CHICAGO  DROVERS’  JOURNAL. 


MONTANA  SHOWS  GREAT  RESULTS. 

“A  deck  of  fancy  136-lb.  Montana  wethers  sold  at  $6.00  this 
morning,  and  a deck  of  fancy  88-lb.  Montana  lambs  at  $7.25, 
the  lambs  reaching  the  previous  top  price  of  the  season  and  the 
Avethers  showing  the  highest  price  of  the  season  and  the  highest 
price  paid  here  since  J une  last  year,  when  the  same  figure  was 
reached . ” 

To  the  Montana  feeder  the  encouraging  feature  of  these  com- 
ments is  that  with  the  right  kind  of  stock,  the  grains  and  fod- 
ders of  Montana  will  give  to  the  live-stock  fattened  here  the 
finish  that  will  enable  them  to  compete  successfully"  with  the 
corn  fed  stock  of  the  middle  west.  Another  thought  suggested, 
perhaps,  is  that  it  pays  to  put  the  finish  on  the  animals. 


PER  CENT  OF  DRESSED  MEAT  TO  LIVE  WEIGHT. 


A few  points  brought  out  incidentally  by  this  test  should  not 
be  passed  over  and  others  should  be  compared  with  the  experience 
of  ])reAdous  years. 


SHEEP  FEEDING. 


25 


Lambs 

Wethers,  1 year 
Wethers,  2 year 
Old  Ewes 


Dressed  Weights,  Per  Cent. 


1902 


1903 


54.2  Per  Cent.  54.8  Per  Cent, 

52.9  Per  Cent 

'53.5  Per  Cent.  51.1  Per  Cent. 
50.6  Per  Cent 


Five  lambs  and  five  wethers  were  marked  before  leaving  the 
Station  farm  and  then  killed  in  Chicago,  and  from  these  the 
dressed  weights  were  obtained.  The  lambs  fed  the  past  winter 
dressed  a little  better  than  did  those  of  the  year  before  bnt  the 
wethers  dressed  2V2  per  cent  less.  We  are  under  obligations  to 
Armour  & Co.,  and  Schwarzschild  & Sulzberger  Co.,  of  Chicago, 
for  the  facts  in  regard  to  this  report. 


SHRINKAGE  FROH  TWELVE  HOURS  FAST. 


.Live-stock  is  frequently  bought  on  full  weights  with  4 per 
cent  deducted  as  shrinkage,  or  they  are  left  without  food  and 
water  for  12  hours  and  then  weighed,  this  weight  being  taken  as 
the  shrink  weight.  An  attempt  was  made  to  find  what  was  the 
shrinkage  by  holding  the  sheep  without  food  and  water  for  12 
hours. 

The  table  gives  the  results  : 


Full  Weight. 

Shrunk  Wt. 

Shrinkage. 

Shrinkage. 

Lambs 

10300  lt)s. 

10175  tT)S. 

185  lbs. 

1,79  Per  Cent. 

Wethers 

16352  lbs. 

258o0  lt)s. 

502  lt)s. 

3 07  Per  Cent. 

The  results  show  that  the  lambs  shrank  a little  less  than  2 per 
cent  and  the  wethers  a fraction  over  3 per  cent  in  live  weight  by 
being  deprived  of  food  and  water  for  12  hours. 


26 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


SHRINKAGE  FROM  SHIPPING  TO  CHICAGO. 


The  next  question  is  the  shrinkage  in  marketing.  The 
weight  taken  as  the  shipping  weight  was  the  average  of  weights 
taken  on  February  23d  and  25th.  The  sheep  were  shipped  the 
morning  of  the  27th.  The  sheep  were  weighed,  as  during  the 
winter,  between  two  and  four  o’eloek  in  the  afternoon,  after  hav- 
ing had  their  morning  feed  of  elover  and  grain.  They  had  aeeess 
to  water  at  all  times.  To  the  table  is  added  the  results  from 
previous  \^ears. 


Weight  Per  Lamb 
in  Bozeman. 

Weight  in 
Chicago. 

1 

Shrinkage. 

Shrinkage 
Per  Cent. 

Year. 

Lambs 

88  ttjs. 

80  lt)S. 

8 tbs. 

8.7 

1901 

U 

86. G Rjs. 

79  lbs. 

7.6  lbs. 

8.7 

1902 

“ 

95  Itjs. 

87.8  ttjs. 

7.  -5  lt)S. 

7.6 

1903 

Wethers 

129  lt)s. 

118  Tbs. 

11.2  Tbs. 

8.6 

1902 

a 

116  Rjs. 

135.6  Itjs. 

10.5  lt3S. 

7,1 

1903 

Old  Ewes 

107.2  lbs. 

95  ITjs. 

12.2  lbs. 

11.3 

i 1902 

The  loss  in  shipping  is  very  simliar  for  the  several  years, 
though  slightly  lower  for  the  past  season.  The  data  should 
give  fairly  aceurate  results  eonsidering  the  three  years.  The 
shrinkage  ranges  between  7 per  eent  and  9 per  cent. 


COST  OF  SHIPPING  TO  CHICAGO. 


An  import^lnt  point  to  be  always  considered  by  the  local 
feeder  is  whether  to  sell  the  lambs  locally  or  ship  to  some  central 
market.  To  enable  the  Montana  feeder  to,  in  a measure,  answer 
this  question,  the  sheep  fed  the  past  three  years  have  been 
shipped  to  Chicago  and  sold  on  that  market.  The  table  shows 
the  cost  of  shipping  for  each  of  the  three  years. 


SHEEP  FEEDING 


27 


Cost  of  Shipping  for  Three  Years,  One  DoubIe=deck  Car. 


Year,  j 

i 

' No.  of  Sheep. 

Average  Weight  j 
of  Sheep. 

' 1 

Total  Cost  of  1 

Shipping, 

Average  Cost 
Per  Sheep, 

1901 

216  lambs 

88  lbs.  j 

8181.39 

8 .8,3 

1902 

55  lambs 

86.7 

42.96 

.7S 

1902 

101  wethers 

129  “ 

122.14  1 

1.17 

1802 

53  ewes 

107 

49.89  i 

.94 

1903 

109  lambs 

95  “ 

81.52 

.75 

1903 

112  wethers 

146  “ 

128.86 

1.16 

The  average  for  the  three  years  shows  that  it  eost  78%  cents 
to  ship  the  lambs,  $1.16  to  ship  each  wether  and  94  cents  to 
ship  the  old  ewes.  It  should  be  remembered,  of  course,  that 
these  results  are  from  shipping  two  or  more  cars.  We  shipped 
with  other  feeders  in  the  vallcAG 


THE  NET  PRICE  PER  POUND  RECEIVED  AT  BOZEMAN== 
CHICAGO  PRICES. 


In  connection  with  the  cost  of  shipping,  an  interesting  ques- 
tion is  as  to  the  net  price  per  pound,  or  100  pounds  received  for 
the  sheep  at  the  college  farm. 

The  net  price  received  for  each  lamb  after  deducting  the  cost  - 
of  shipping,  etc.,  was  $5.29.  Figuring  on  their  weight  at  Boze- 
man, viz. ; 95  pounds  each,  this  gives  a return  of  $5.57  per 

hundred  pounds  at  Bozeman. 

For  the  wethers  the  net  price  received  for  each  after  deduct- 
ing shipping  expenses  was  $6.98.  Again  considering  the  weights 
at  Bozeman,  viz. : 146  pounds  each,  the  returns  were  $4.78  per 

100  pounds  at  Bozeman. 

As  will  be  noted,  this  is  considerable  above  the  prices  paid  in 
the  valley  the  past  winter.  There  is,  however,  always  a certain 
amount  of  risk  in  shipping,  due  to  the  fluctuations  in  the  market, 
and  again  these  prices  were  for  an  extra  lot  of  stock. 


28 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


THE  EXPERIENCES  OF  SOME  OTHER  FEEDERS. 


In  closing  the  description  of  the  sheep  feeding  work  of  the 
past  winter,  we  wish  to  place  on  record  the  results  obtained  b^^  a 
few  of  the  feeders  in  the  state  as  reported  in  three  of  the  papers. 
The  following  extracts  are  taken  from  those  reports : 


FROM  THE  GALLATIN  FARMER  AND  STOCKflAN. 


PROFIT  ON  LAMB  FEEDING. 

“We  publish  the  following  statement  kindly  furnished  us  by 
Air.  E.  Broox  Martin,  who  has  for  a number  of  wears  past  been 
feeding  lambs  for  the  market.  A careful  record  has  been  kept  of 
all  expenses  incurred,  as  shown  in  the  tables  which  go  a long  way 
to  proye  just  what  can  be  done  by  careful  management  and 
keeping  correct  data : 


SHEEP  FEEDING  STATEMENT. 

Bought  1,793  lambs  Oct.  4,  paid $3,070.25 

Run  them  on  pasture  to  Noy.  27 ; pasture  cost 93.28 

Paid  herder 36.00 

Noy.  27,  put  lambs  on  hay  feed,  and  fed  3 lbs.  per  day 

for  83  days,  438,987  pounds  a $5.00  per  ton 1,097.00 

Began  feeding  grain  Dec.  29  and  fed  4,000  lbs.  of  sceen- 

ings  at  75  cents  per  hundred  30.00 

Also  40,451  lbs.  of  oats  at  85  cents  per  hundred 420.33 

Salt 2.50 

Labor  to  feed  lambs 190.00 

Board  for  men  while  feeding 59.10 

Board  for  teams  while  feeding 52.12 

Shoeing  horses  15.00 

Interest  on  capital  inyested 71.61 

Incidentals,  proyisons  for  herders,  liyery  etc 20.05 


$5,178.14 


SHEEP  FEEDING. 


29 


CONTRA  ACCOUNT. 

Feb.  20  sol'd  1,763  lambs  at  4V2  cents  for $6,773.34 

By  25  per  cent  of  ha\^  cleaned  from  racks  and  fed  to 

stock  cattle 274.25 

By  pelts  from  lambs  lost 5.00 


$7,062.59 

5,178.14 


$1,884.45 

“The  lambs  weighed  on  November  27,  when  the  feeding  com- 
menced, an  average  of  69  pounds.  They  weighed  on  February' 
20,  when  sold  an  average  of  86V3  pounds,  a gain  since  feeding 
commenced,  of  17M?  pounds.” 


FROM  THE  DILLON  TRIBUNE. 


“The  finest  shipment  of  sheep  that  has  ever  gone  out  of 
Beaverhead  county,  if  not  the  state  of  Montana,  left  the  Dillon 
stock  yards  last  Friday.  There  were  almost  1,600  of  them. 

The  sheep  were  an  example  of  what  alfalfa  feeding  will  do  in 
this  county. 

The  wethers  were  bred  and  raised  by  .J  E.  Morse  and  E.  O. 
Selway,  of  this  city,  and  were  Hampshire  and  Shropshire 
crosses.  They  were  purchased  by  Mr.  Hample,  of  Butte,  last 
December  and  were  fed  exclusively  on  alfalfa  hay  for  the  last  sev- 
enty-four days,  during  which  time  they  consumed  about  six 
pounds  of  alfalfa  each  per  day.  The  sheep  were  weighed  when 
placed  on  feed  and  averaged  108  pounds  and  cost  three  cents  per 
pound.  They  were  sold  at  four  and  a quarter  cents  per  pound, 
and  averaged  when  weighed  last  Friday,  137  pounds. 

The  feeding  may  be  summed  up  as  follows  : 


Cost  of  1,600  sheep  at  $3.24 $5,840.00 

Cost  of  363  tons  hay  at  $5.00 1,815.00 

Cost  of  labor,  salt  etc 197.00 

Sundries  and  death  losses 66.20 


Total  cost $7,262.20 

Total  proceeds 9,289.29 

Net  gain 2,027.09 

ITofit  per  sheep 1.27 


30 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


FROM  THE  GALLATIN  COUNTY  REPUBLICAN. 


“The  following  are  some  of  the  facts  and  figures  gathered 
from  a few  of  the  farmers  who  fed  sheep  the  past  season  and 
who  have  recently  disposed  of  their  lambs  and  wethers : 

“John  M.  Robinson  fed  about  2,400  head  of  lambs  and 
wethers,  the  lambs  being  in  the  majority.  He  paid  1.75  for  the 
iambs  but  wlien  delivered  on  his  ranch  they  represented  a cost  of 
$1.80.  The  wethers  cost  delivered  $2.80  per  head. 

“The  buneh  was  fed  90  days  on  hay.  Close  figuring  showing 
that  the  actual  cost  for  hay  at  6.00  per  ton  , during  the  entire 
]3eriod  of  feeding  was  75  cents.  Grain  was  fed  for  47  da^^s  and 
represented  an  outlay"  of  21  cents  per  head  for  the  total  period, 
reckoning  the  grain  at  prevailing  market  prices.  The  prices  re- 
ceived by  Mr.  Robinson  were  $4.50  per  cwt.  for  the  lambs  and 
$3.60  for  the  wethers  on  the  home  ranch.  The  lambs  weighed 
on  an  average  a fraction  over  85  lbs.  and  the  wethers  146%  lbs. 
each.  The  loss  during  the  entire  feeding  season  was  about  1 per 
cent.  One  animal  was  lost  from  bloat,  a couple  got  on  their 
backs  and  were  too  fat  to  right  themselves  and  several  died 
from  unknown  causes. 

“Charles  Miller  fed  1,400  lambs  and  paid  $1.80  per  head  for 
them,  and  fed  for  two  months,  in  addition  to  pasturing  during 
November,  the  feed  being  clover  and  oats.  Mr.  Miller  raised  for 
the  ptirpose  of  feeding  his  sheep  150  tons  of  clover  hay  from  40 
<acres  of  land,  all  of  which  he  fed  during  the  two  months. 

“In  addition  to  hay  he  fed  52,000  lbs.  oats.  He  figured  the 
hay  was  worth  on  his  ranch  about  $4.50  per  ton  and  the  oats  75 
cents  per  cwt.  The  lambs  at  the  time  the^^  were  sold  weighed  on 
<in  average  85  lbs.  These  sheep  were  weighed  after  being  with- 
out food  or  water  for  12  hours,  and  driven  three  miles  to  scales. 
The  ]:)rice  receiv'cd  was  4%  cents  per  cwt.  The  loss  was  greater 
than  Air.  Robinson’s  owing  to  the  fact,  probably,  that  this  is 
Air.  Aliller’s  first  exeprience..  During  the  season  he  lost  30  head, 
some  from  bloat,  others  rolled  over  on  their  backs  and  could  not 
get  up,  and  some  from  unknown  causes.  The  work  of  feeding 
and  caring  for  these  sheep  was  done  by  Air.  Aliller  without  any 


SHEEP  FEEDING. 


31 


help.  In  addition  to  the  sheep  Mr.  Miller  fed  50  head  of  steers 
on  the  deavings’  of  the  sheep  ; these  are  in  very  good  eondition 
and  with  a little  grain  and  hay  would  make  beef  in  a few  weeks. 

“To  show  the  net  gain  of  the  two  months  feeding  by  Mr. 
Miller,  we  present  the  following  table  : 


1,400  lambs  at  $1.80 $2,500.00 

1 50  tons  ha\^  at  $4.50  per  ton 675.00 

2,000  lbs.  oats  at  75c  per  cwt 390.00 

2 months  wages  at  $50  per  month 100.00 


Cost $3,685.00 

1,400  lambs  at  4y2  cents,  85  lbs  $5,355.00 

30  head  loss 114.75 


$5,240.25 

Less  Cost 3,685.00 


Net  gain $1,555.25 


“This  does  not  allow  an^Thing  for  the  keep  of  the  steers. 

“The  principal  thing  is  to  buy  the  right  kind  of  stock,  and 
above  all  things  do  not  buy  old  toothless  ewes.  Then  the 
feeder  should  have  good  shelter,  plenty  of  fresh  open  water  for 
the  stock  to  drink  whenever  it  please. 

“Mr.  Robinson  fed  hay  twice  a day,  morning  and  evening, 
and  grain  at  noon.  His  hay  was  weighed  for  the  first  three  or 
four  weeks  so  that  he  might  know  just  how  much  he  was  feeding 
per  head.  Like  Mr.  Miller  he  trailed  some  cattle  to  clean  up  the 
leavings  of  the  sheep  and  with  the  addition  of  a little  fresh  hay 
kept  them  nice  and  fat.” 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 


For  help  in  the  selection  of  this  car  lot  of  sheep  our  thanks 
are  due  to  Mr.  J.  M.  Robinson  of  Bozeman,  and  for  help  in  ship- 
ping to  Chicago  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Maxey  of  Bozeman.  We 
are  also  under  obligations  to  Clay,  Robinson  & Co.  for  the  sale 
made  and  to  Armour  & Co.  and  Schwarzschild  & Sulzberger 
Packing  Co.  for  the  results  of  the  slaughter  tests  at  Chicago. 


32 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION. 


(I)  For  the  lambs,  the  sereenings  proved  the  cheapest  and 
most  efficient  grain  ration,  followed  by  mixed  grain,  wheat, 
barley  and  oats  in  the  order  named. 

( 2)  The  lambs  ate  2.05  pounds  of  clover  and  .81  pounds  of 
grain  a day  while  the  wethers  ate  3.22  pounds  of  clover  and  .806 
pounds  of  grain. 

(3)  The  lambs  averaged  .263  pounds  gain  in  live  weight  a 
day,  or  25  pounds  for  the  full  term  of  the  experiment.  The 
wethers  averaged  .238  pounds  per  day  or  22%  pounds  for  the 
95  days. 

(4)  Thelambsate  8.03  pounds  of  clover  and  3.11  pounds  of 
grain  for  each  pound  of  increase  in  live  weight.  The  wethers  ate 
13.49  pounds  of  clover  and  3.38  pounds  of  grain  for  each  pound 
of  increase. 

(5)  Each  pound  of  increase  in  live  weight  put  upon  the 
lambs  cost  4.49  cents  while  each  pound  of  increase  on  the  weth- 
ers cost  6.3  cents. 

( 6)  Lambs  kept  without  food  or  water  for  12  hours  shrank 
nearly  2 per  cent.  Wethers  similarly  treated  shrank  3 per  cent 
in  weight. 

( 7}  In  shipping  to  Chicago  each  lamb  shrank  714  pounds  or 
7.6  per  cent.  On  the  average  for  three  3'^ears  the}"  shrank  8.3  per- 
cent of  their  shipping  weight.  The  wethers  lost  10.4  pounds 
each  or  7.1  per  cent  of  their  shipping  weight,  or  for  two  years, 
7.8  per  cent  of  their  shipping  weight. 

(8)  For  the  past  winter  it  cost  on  the  average  75  cents  to 
ship  and  sell  each  lamb  at  Chicago  and  $1.16  for  each  wether. 
On  the  average  for  three  years  it  cost  78%  cents  to  ship  and  sell 
one  lamb  and  $1.16%  to  ship  and  sell  one  wether. 

(9)  The  net  prices  received  for  the  lambs  F.  O.  B.  Bozeman 
was  $5.57  per  100  pounds  live  weight  and  for  the  wethers  $4.78 
per  100  pounds. 

(10)  The  profit,  or  return  for  mone}"  invested  and  pay  for  the 
labor,  on  each  lamb,  by  shipping  to  Chicago  was  $2.34  and  the 
profit  on  each  wether  was  $2.80.  Or  taking  the  results  of  the 
practical  feeder  and  charge  25  per  cent  for  the  labor  cost  of  feed- 
ing, the  return  on  the  investment  was  $2.09  for  the  lamb  and 
$2.55  for  the  wether. 

(II)  In  the  slaughter  test  the  lambs  dressed  54.8  per  cent 
and  the  wethers  dressed  51  per  cent  of  the  live  weight  at  Chicago. 


BULLETIN  NO.  45. 


•MONTANA 

AGRICULTURAL 

EXPERIMENT  STATION 

-OF— 

THE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 

-OF- 

MONTANA. 

STEER  FEEDING. 

WINTER  OF  1902  = 1903. 


BOZEnAN,  nONTANA,  SEPTEMBER,  1903. 


BOZEMAN  CHRONICLE--1903. 


MONTANA  AURICULTLIRAL 

EXPERIMENT  STATION 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor,  ) 

James  Donovan,  Attorney-General,  [ Ex-Offieio 

W.  W.  Welch, ^Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  J 

J.  M.  Evans....' 

C.  R.  Leonard 

N.  W.  McConnell 

W.  M.  Johnston 

O.  P.  Chisholm 

J.  G.  McKay 

G.  T.  Paul 

N.  B.  Holter 


Helena 

Alissoula 

Butte 

Helena 

....Billings 

.Bozeman 

Hamilton 

Dillon 

Helena 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President Bozeman 

John  M.  Robinson,  Vice-President Bozeman 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary Bozeman 

Joseph  Kountz Bozeman 

E.  B.  Lamme “. Bozeman 


STATION  STAFF. 

S.  Fortier,  Ma.  E Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer 

F.  B.  Linfield,  B.  S.  A Vice  Director  and  Agriculturist 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Pli.  D.,  F.  C.  S Chemist 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D Botanist 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc Entomologist 

R.  W.  Fisher,  B.  S Assistant  Horticulturist 

Edmund  Burke Assistant  Chemist 


Post  Office,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be 
addressed  to  the  Director, 

Montana  Experiment  Station, 

Bozeman,  Mont. 


NOTICE — The  bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to 
any  citizen  of  Alontana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the 
Station  for  that  purpose. 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  STEER  FEEDING,  1902=3, 


By  F.  B.  LINFIELD. 


CONTENTS. 

Page 

lutrodnction 154 

The  Plau  of  the  Experimeut 155 

Cost  of  Feed 155 

Tables  I aud  II 15(*-157 

Discussion  of  Results 15$ 

The  Gains  Made 15$ 

Food  Eaten  Per  Day  and  Per  One  Pound  of  Gain 151^ 

Cost  of  Food  Eaten IdO 

The  Financial  Results Idl 

Table  III 151 

Wheie  tlie  Profits  Come  From 15$ 

Illustrations  . . . 154 

Summary  and  Conclusion 154 


Note — Through  an  oversight,  Bulletin  No.  47  was  paged  independently  of 
the  other  series  of  the  year.  This  Bulletin  returns  to  the  consecutive  paging 


STEER  FEEDING 


INTRODUCTION. 


For  the  past  three  seasons  the  Montana  Experiment  Station 
has  eonducted  experiments  in  fattening  steers,  to  test  the  feeding 
value  of  various  kinds  of  Montana  fodders.  During  the  past  win- 
ter a earload  of  steers  were  fed,  the  object  of  the  experiment  being 
to  determine  the  relative  value  of  different  kinds  of  grain  when  fed 
with  clover  in  fattening  steers.  The  question  is  frequenth'  asked 
as  to  the  relative  value  of  oats,  wheat,  barley,  etc.,  for  fattening 
animals  and  this  experiment  was  planned  to  throw  some  light 
on  the  subject. 

The  24  steers  used  in  the  test  w^ere  a mixed  lot  of  two  and 
three  year  olds,  range  stock  of  probably  average  qualit^x  The 
most  of  them  showed  evidences  of  some  little  Short  Horn  blood. 
They  arrived  on  the  farm  on  the  23rd  of  November.  On  the  28th, 
one-half  of  the  steers  which  were  not  dehorned,  were  driven  to  a 
dehorning  chute  and  the  horns  sawed  off.  The  wounds  healed 
rapidly  and  with  no  apparent  disadvantage  to  the  steers. 


STEER  FEEDING. 


155 


PLAN  OF  EXPERIMENT. 


The  24-  steers  were  divided  into  four  lots,  six  steers  in  each  lot. 
The  division  was  made  as  evenly  as  possible  considering  quality 
and  weight.  The  lots  were  fed  as  follows: 

Lot  1.  Wheat  and  clover  hay. 

Lot  2.  Oats  and  clover  hay. 

Lot  3.  Barley  and  clover  hay. 

Lot  4.  Wheat,  oats  and  barley  mixed  in  equal  quantities,  b^^ 
weight  and  clover  hay.  All  the  grain  was  chopped. 

The  experiment  started  on  December  1st.  For  the  first  ten 
da3^s  clover  ha^^  was  fed.  We  then  started  to  feed  the  grain,  giving 
three  pounds  per  day  to  each  lot  and  about  one  month  was  taken 
to  get  the  steers  onto  a full  feed  of  five  pounds  of  grain  per  steer 
per  day.  The  hay  and  the  grain  were  fed  twice  in  the  day. 

The  steers  were  weighed  on  December  1st  and  3rd,  and  again 
on  the  10th  and  12th  of  December,  and  thereafter  every  two  weeks 
until  the  clOvSe  of  the  experiment.  The  average  of  two  daA^s 
weights  was  taken  as  the  correct  weight. 

Water  was  flowing  through  the  yards,  thus  the  steers  had 
access  to  water  at  will.  Salt  was  also  kept  on  hand. 


COST  OF  THE  FEED. 


The  cost  of  the  grain  and  fodder  fed  was  as  follows: 

Clover  ha3" $5.00  per 

Wheat 88c  per  100 

Oats 85c  per  100 

Barley 95c  per  100 

Bran 85c  per  100 

Mixed  Grain *. 89c  per  100 


ton 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 


These  prices  were  practically  the  market  prices  for  the  hay  and 
grain  on  the  Bozeman  market  in  the  fall  of  1902.  The  clover  hay 
was  of  good  quality  and  generally  well  cured.  It  was  a mixture 
of  medium  red  and  alsike.  The  grain  was  good  marketable  grain. 


156 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


TABLE  I. — Weights  and  Gains  of  Steers. 


Period 

Lot  and  How  Fed. 

Weight 

at 

begin- 
ning of 
experi- 
ment 
and  of 
each 
period. 

Weight 
at  end 
of 

periods 

and 

of 

test. 

Gain 

for 

each 

period 

and 

total 

gain. 

Aver- 

age 

daily 

gain 

per 

steer. 

Aver- 

age 

gain 

per 

steer 

1 

lt)S. 

lt)S. 

Hjs. 

Rjs. 

Tbs. 

First  period 

1.  Wheat  and  clover  hay 

6675 

7010 

365 

1.64 

Dec.  1st  to 

2.  Oats  and  clover  hay 

6507 

6830 

323 

1.45 

53.84 

Jan.  6tli. 

3.  Barley  and  clover  hay 

6470 

7002 

512 

2.40 

88.63 

37  days. 

4.  Mixed  grain  and  clover  hay 

6702 

7315 

613 

2.76 

102.18 

Second  period 

1.  Wheat  and  clover  hay 

7040 

7510  1 

500 

2.98 

83.34 

Jan.  7th  to 

2.  Oats  and  clover  hay 

6830 

7120  1 

290 

1.73 

48.34 

Feb.  3rd. 

3.  Barley  and  clover  hay 

7002 

7480  I 

478 

2.87 

79.67 

28  days. 

4.  Mixed  grain  and  clover  hay 

7315 

7875 

560 

3.33 

93.34 

Third  period 

1.  Wheat  and  clover  hay 

7510 

7685  i 

145 

1.07 

24.17 

Feb.  4th  to 

2.  Oats  and  clover  hay 

7120 

7245  i 

125 

l.(K) 

20.83 

Feb.  24th. 

3.  Barley  and  clover  hay 

7480 

7550  : 

70 

.55 

11.67 

21  days. 

4.  Mixed  grain  and  clover  hay 

7875 

7962  i 

87 

.69 

14.50 

Two  periods 

1.  Wheat  and  clover  hay 

7040 

7685 

645 

2.19 

107.50 

from  Jan.  7th 

2.  Oats  and  clover  hay 

6830 

7245 

415 

1.41 

69.17 

to  Feb.  24th. 

3.  Barley  and  clover  hay 

7002 

7550 

548 

1.86 

91.34 

49  days. 

4.  Mixed  grain  and  clover  hay 

7315 

7962  i 

647 

2.20 

107.84 

Three  periods 

1.  Wheat  and  clover  hay 

6675 

7685 

1010 

1.96 

168.34 

from  Dec.  1st 

2.  Oats  and  clover  hay 

6507 

7245 

738 

1.43 

123.00 

to  Feb.  24th. 

3.  Barley  and  clover  hay 

6470 

7550 

1080 

2.09 

180.00 

86  days. 

4.  Mixed  grain  and  clover  hay 

6702 

7962 

1260 

2.44 

210.00 

Fourth  period 

1.  Mixed  grain  and  clover  hay 

7685 

8075 

“390 

2.60 

65.00 

Feb.  25th  to 

2.  Mixed  grain  and  clover  hay 

7245 

7635 

390 

2.60 

65.00 

March  21st. 

3.  Mixed  grain  and  clover  hay 

7550 

7960 

410 

2,73 

68.34 

25  days. 

4^  Mixed  grain  and  clover  hay 

7962  j 

8387 

525 

3.50 

87.50 

Whole  time 

1.  Wheat  and  clover  hay 

6675 

8()75 

1400 

2.10 

233.35 

Dec.  1st  to 

2.  Oats  and  clover  hay 

8507 

7635 

1128 

1.69 

188.00 

March  21st, 

3.  Barley  and  clover  hay 

6470 

7960 

1490 

2.34 

218.36 

111  days. 

4.  Mixed  grain  and  clover  hay 

6702 

83s7 

1685 

2.53 

280.83 

.\verage  tor  24  steers 

26354 

Si057^ 

'5703 

Average  per  steer • 

1097 

13, 36”  1 

2.15 

239.00 

TABLE  11.  Food  Eaten  by  Steers  and  Cost  of  Same. 

j Food  Eaten  Food  Eatcni 

Total  Food  Eaten.  Per  Day  for  One  I'ound  Cost  of  Feediin 

Per  Steer.  


STEER  FEEDEXG. 


157 


0:5 


CO  CO  CO 


GOOOGOOO  CiCiOO 


lO  L- 

CO  lO  oi  (M  :oi  '+1  CO  oi 
O O CO  01  O Oi  o t-H 


T-S  Ol  CO  CC  CO  07  CM  CO  CO 
O O CO  O CO  I' 
lO  -n  lO  CM  ;01  1— I GO  rH  ;cM 


CC  CO  CC  lO  CO  CO  CO  CO 
X)  Ci  CM  O iCi  CO  CO  o 


01  CM  O O 


; 00  iO  CO  II-  I-  |0  --H  CO  CO  -H  GO  iOl  CC  lO  L-  rO  ^-O  CO  -H  lO  CM  CO  07 

Ji  I'-H  uO  CO  GO  CO  !M  L’  lO  IcO  O O Ml  ,0  lO  CO  07  CO  CO  >0  |Ci  COC  CO  07  GO  ’-H  CO  CO 


^ CO  — ' tH  ICO  ro  CO  L-  '07  CO  07  07 


CO)  C07  I [ I I-+i  GO  >C0 

CO  CO  07  I-  07  'GO  -cH  CO  CO  LO  07  O 07  T-l  GO  il-  L-  CO  CO  ; — ' r-.'  O CO  t-I  CO  CO  Ci 


CO  CO  CO  07  O 


.i  H o CO  -I 
J CO  CO  07  CO 

' 07  07  07  07 


CO  O O O'  'LO  O O O lO  GO  00  CO 


CO  LO  LO  »0  kH  'O  lO  I 


O CO  CO  CO  lO  lO  lO  LO 


Oi  T— I >— I rH 
CO  '-n  -ti  rtl 


lO  LO  LO  LO  'i— f — ' rH  T— I 


-tH  -rn  -tH  -H  107  07  07  07 
07  C7  07  07  07  07  07  07 


0000107  00  C: 

co^'^^locococo 

GOGOOO'GO  'rtICOCDCC 


O O 'O  o 
CO  ^ ^ 


& l 

^ O 

O O ^ p] 


■O  LO  07  07  1 GO  CO  CD  o jco  CO  CO  CO  ;0  CO  lO  ^ lO 


^ I 


GO  GO  00  CO  ICO  CO  CD  o ' O'  O'  o o I ~ I-  I--  a- 

G CO  CO  CO  07  07  


07  071  07  07  07  07  07  07  j CO 


07  07  07  07 


o o o o 

07  07  CO  07 

L-  1'' 

■<!*7  -rH  'tl 


lO  lO  LO  LO 
I-  I-  7- 
CO  CO  LO  LO 
CO  CO  CO  CO 


lO  lO  LO  iO 
o:  Gi  o a: 

CO  CO  CC  07 
CC  CO  CO  GO 


C5  rH  00  CO 
GO  CG  07  CO 
lO  L~  I'  I- 
07  07  07  07 


O lO  lO  LO 
CO  CO  H7  CO 
GO  GO 

CO  CO  CO  CO 


O O 'O  O ' 3 LO  LO  70 
HI  tH  ^ HI  iL-  7-  CO 
LO  70  70  CO  CO  07  07 
CO  QO  GO  CO 


ki  . rH  O! 
d • oi  > 
^ O 


2^^ 


> > 
o 

O b O ^ 

rr  03 


tH  O' 
f - 03  > 

O ^ iTTi 

o«Sg 


O o'o  a 

2 “"S'S 
i'2  S ^ 
te  =« 

^ o3  o3 


TO  . TO  ^ I 

^ c 5 


^ > 
_o 


<D  O 
> > 
0^0 

'o  ^ "c 
05  13  ^ 

S^rH  H 

03^  03 

-^5  Se  to 
03  <o 
o CC 
03  -7^ 

^ o3  cC 

>om 


! TO  . WU 

If  S-f’ 

!o  ^ o § 

!l3  o ri 


a 

o3 
d 

I !fl 

cat' 


05  a 


lie 

! o CC 


si? 


Is 

!S0 

><! 


o3 


"H  ' 

je  03  •”  I 

Gcq^  I 


rH 

„ k.J  C 

^ H 

O O r-r 
^ ^ ^ ^ 
O O 3 
r-H  > r— I 03 
o o o 

05  13  ^ 

d ^ d k 

d 73  ® 

^ -H  ;-i  X! 

ce  ce  3d 


07  CO  H3  iH  07  CO  HH 


H LO 
S C 07 
O H> 


H>  CC 
CC  f>5 
' H 

S 

qS- 


Average  for  1 steer. i 30314  i 149 


158 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


DISCUSSION  OF  RESULTS. 


Tables  1 and  2 give  the  facts  gleaned  during  the  feeding  test. 
The  whole  time  of  the  feeding  test  is  divided  into  periods  so  as  to 
note  any  change  in  the  weight  or  gain  during  the  time  of  feeding. 
The  first  period  of  37  days  was  really  preliminar3^  Forten  da^’s  of 
this  time  the  steers  received  ha^^  onh^,  and  the  rest  of  the  peried 
was  taken  in  getting  the  steers  up  to  a full  grain  ration.  None  of 
the  steers  apparenthy  had  ever  seen  grain  before  and  it  took  a lit- 
tle coaxing  to  get  some  of  them  to  eat  it.  We  first  started  b^' 
mixing  a little  salt  with  bran,  and  later  cut  down  the  ha\’  ration 
for  a da\^  or  two.  Finalh^  all  started  to  eat  the  grain  except  one 
steer  in  lot  3.  This  animal  never  ate  an^'  grain  during  the  time  of 
the  test.  His  ration  was  eaten  b\"  the  others. 

The  test  period  proper  was  for  the  next  4-9  da^^'s,  but  this  is 
also  divided  into  two  periods,  as  it  was  noted  that  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  period  the  steers  seemed  to  be  getting  tired  of  the  grain. 
Because  of  this  fact  the  test  proper  was  concluded  after  the  steers 
were  on  feed  86  daj^s,  but  the  steers  not  being  read3^  for  market, 
all  the  lots  were  fed  for  25  da^^s  longer,  on  a mixed  grain  ration 
with  bran.  The  tables  afford  opportuniH"  for  several  comparisons 
during  the  feeding  season. 


THE  GAINS  MADE. 


For  the  first  period  of  37  days,  lot  4 gained  the  most,  \\z.:  2.7 
lbs.  per  da3^  per  steer,  with  lot  3 in  second  place,  gaining  2.4  pounds 
per  da3N  Lots  1 and  2 gained  nearW  1 pound  less  per  da3"  per 
steer.  For  the  first  part  of  the  test  period,  viz.:  28  da3^s,  lot  4 
gained  3.33  pounds  per  steer  per  da3N  This  lot  averaged  3 pounds 
per  da3"  for  the  65  da3"s  feeding  to  this  date.  Lot  1 fed  wheat 
jumps  to  second  place  with  a gain  of  2.98  or  nearly  3 pounds  per 
steer  per  da3N  Lot  3 fed  barle3",  is  a close  third  with  the  lot  fed 
oats  ver3^  much  behind. 


FIG.  1.  A POOR  TYPE  OF  FEEDING  STEER 


A COARSE,  ROUGH  S'I'EER 


FIG.  3.  THE  BEST  STEER  IN  THE  CAR  LOAD 


FIG.  4.  THE  STEERS,  THE  SHEDS  AND  THE  FEEDING  CORRAL 


STEER  FEEDING. 


159 


All  of  the  lots  fell  off  during  the  third  period,  or  second  part 
of  the  test  period.  The  lots  that  made  the  best  average  gain  dur- 
ing the  first  65  days  of  feeding  made  the  poorest  gains  for  this 
period. 

Considering  the  test  period  proper  of  49  days;  the  steers  fed 
on  the  mixed  grain  ration  made  the  fastest  gain,  viz.  2.2  pounds 
per  day  per  steer.  The  lot  fed  wheat  is  a very  close  second,  gain- 
ing 2.19  pounds  per  day  per  steer,  while  those  fed  barley  gained 
1.86  pounds  per  day  per  steer,  and  those  fed  the  oat  ration  only 
1.41  po^unds  per  steer  per  day,  or  thepoorest  returns  of  any  ration. 

Considering  next  the  whole  time  of  feeding  of  86  days,  the 
mixed  grain  ration  produced  the  fastest  gain  with  barley  second,  fol- 
lowed by  wheat,  while  the  oats  ration  produced  the  slowest  gain. 

For  the  fourth  period  of  25  days,  after  the  change  of  the  grain 
ration,  the  most  rapid  gains  of  the  test  were  made.  J,ot  4 gained 
3.5  pounds  per  steer  per  day,  lot  3 gained  2.7  pounds  per  steer  per 
da3^,  and  lots  1 and  2,  2.6  pounds  per  steer  per  day. 

For  the  111  da3^s  of  the  feeding  season,  lot  4 gained  2.5  pounds 
per  steer  per  day,  a very  satisfactory  gain  considering  the  length 
of  the  feeding  period,  lot  3 gained  2.3  pounds  per  steer  per  day, 
lot  1 gained  2-1  pounds  and  lot  2 gained  1.7  pounds  per  steer 
per  da^G 

On  the  average  each  steer  gained  239  pounds  in  live  weight, 
increasing  from  1097  pounds  to  1336  pounds  each  or  2;15‘  pounds 
per  day. 

FOOD  EATEN  PER  DAY  AND  PER  ONE  POUND  GAIN. 


Table  2 gives  the  amount  of  food  eaten,  the  food  eaten  per 
day,  the  food  eaten  for  each  pound  of  gain  and  the  cost  of  the 
food.  As  with  the  weights,  this  table  is  divided  into  periods  to 
show  the  results  at  different  stages  of  the  feeding. 

The  clover  eaten  per  day  for  the  first,  or  preliminary^  period, 
Avas  24.5  pounds  per  day  per  steer.  For  the  first  period  on  full 
feed  the  amount  of  clover  eaten  per  day  was  22  pounds,  for  the 
next  period  about  29  pounds  per  day.  Evidently  the  slower  gains 

for  this  period  were  not  due  to  any  decsease  in  the  ha\'  eaten.  Dur- 


160 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


ing  the  fourth  period  30.3  pounds  of  clover  were  eaten  per  da}^  per  t 
steer  and  for  the  whole  feeding  test  the  average  was  27.5  j30unds  | 
of  clover  per  da}'. 

As  the  total  amount  of  feed  eaten  by  the  various  lots  is  practi-  i 
cally  the  same,  the  amount  of  food  for  each  pound  of  gain  is  in  in-  ; 
verse' relation  to  the  gains  made  throughout  all  the  periods.  : 

For  the  test  period  of  49  days,  lot  1 fed  on  wheat  and  clover  j 
and  lot  4 fed  on  mixed  grain  and  clover  required  practically  the  | 
same  amount  of  food  for  each  pound  of  gain,  viz:  15  06  pounds.  ^ 
The  lot  fed  barley' required  17.78  pounds  of  food  for  one  pound  of 
gain  and  the  lot  fed  oats  required  23.74  pounds,  the  least  efficient  I 
ration. 

Considering  the  whole  time  of  the  experiment,  or  111  days,  lot  : 
4 required  the  least  food  for  each  period  of  gain,  viz:12.5  pounds. 
Fot  3 required  14.13  pounds.  Lot  1 required  14.95  pounds  and 
lot  2 required  18.72  pounds  of  food  for  each  pound  of  gain  in  live  i 
weight. 


COST  OF  THE  FOOD  EATEN. 


Considering  next  the  cost  of  the  rations:  For  the  first  period 
the  daily  cost  was  about  8c  per  day.  For  the  test  period  of  49 
days  the  cost  was  l^etween  11c  and  12c  per  day.  The  barley  ration 
being  the  most  expensive,  followed  by  mixed  grain,  oats  and  wheat 
in  the  order  named.  For  the  whole  time  of  feeding  the  average 
cost  was  10.5c  per  day. 

In  this  connection  the  cost  of  one  pound  of  gain  is  the  im- 
portant factor.  For  the  preliminary  period  the  cost  ranged  from 
3 to  5V2  cents  for  each  pound  of  gain.  For  the  test  period  of  49 
days;  the  cost  of  1 pound  of  gain  ranged  from  5c  to  8c.  Lot  1, 
fed  wheat,  made  the  cheapest  gain,  viz:  5c  per  pound.  The  gain  on 
lot  4,  fed  mixed  grain,  cost  5.22  cents  per  pound.  For  lot  3,  fed 
barley,  the  cost  was  6.32  cents  per  pound,  and  for  lot  2,  fed  oats, 
the  cost  was  8 cents  for  each  pound  of  gain. 

Considering  the  whole  time  of  feeding,  or  111  days,  each 
130und  of  gain  cost  on  the  average,  5.2  cents.  The  range  was  from 
4.2  cents  for  lot  4,  to  6.1  cents  for  lot  2. 


STEER  FEEDING. 


161 


THE  FINANCIAL  RESULTS. 


The  steers  were  purchased  for  us  by  Mr.  Joseph  Kouiitz  of 
Bozemau.  Twenty-one  of  them  cost  $40.00  each  or  $840.00  and 
three  cost  $41.00  each  or  $123.00,  a total  for  the  24  of  $963.00. 
The  following  table  gives  the  hnancial  results  of  the  feeding: 

TABLE  III.— Financial  Statement. 


LOT  1. 

Fed 

clover 

and 

Wheat. 

LOT  2. 

Fed 

clover 

and 

Oats 

LOT 

Fed 

Clevel- 

and 

Barley. 

LOT  4. 

Fed 

Clevel- 

and 

Mixed 

Grain. 

Average 

and 

Totals 

N amber  of  steers 

6 

6 

6 

6 

24 

Weight  at  beginniog 

6675  His 

6507  lbs 

6470  as 

6702  as 

26354  as 

(a)  Cost  of  steers  at  3.652c  per  It) . . . 

$ 243.77 

$ 237.64' 

$ 236.28 

$ 244.85 

$ 963.00 

Cost  of  food  per  lot 

68.82 

69.13 

71.72 

70.00 

279.67 

Cost  of  food  per  steer 

11.47 

! 11.52 

11.95 

11.66 

11.65 

Total  cost  of  steers 

312.59 

; .306.77 

308.00 

314.85 

1242.67 

Weight  at  close  of  experiment 

8075  Tbs 

1 7635  lt)S 

7960  as 

8387  as 

320.57  as 

Net  gain  in  pounds 

1400  lbs 

i 1128  lt)s 

I 1490  as 

1685  as 

5703  as 

Shrunk  weight  of  steers 

7800  lbs 

j 7.370  lbs 

7685  as 

80.50  lt)s 

.30907  as 

Per  cent  shrink  on  full  weight 

Received  for  steers  % 4c  a pound 

3.4 

3.47 

3.45 

4.25 

3.58 

shrunk  weight 

$ 312.00$  294.80 

$ .307.40 

$ 322.00 

$1236.28 

Received  per  head  for  each  steer. . . 

50.33 

49.13 

51.23 

53.66 

51.09 

Profit  or  loss  on  feed 

*0.57 

*11.97 

*0.60 

t7.15 

*6.. 39 

Profit  or  loss  on  each  steer 

*0.10 

‘ *1.99 

*0 . 10 

tl.19 

*0.26 

(a)  Note  : The  steers  cost  as  stated  above  .$40  and  .$41  each,  but  to  place  each  lot  on  an  eqtial 
basis,  the  lots  are  fii?ured  on  the  calculated  price  per  pound. 

■'  Loss. 

T Profit. 


162 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


The  steers  eost  on  the  average  $3.65  per  100  pounds  live 
weight.  The  cost  of  the  food  for  each  lot  ranged  from  $68.82  for 
lot  1 to  $71.72  for  lot  3.  The  difference  in  this  item  is  but  slight 
for  all  the  lots.  The  cost  of  the  food  for  each  steer  for  111  days 
ranged  from  $11.47  to  $11.95.  Lot  1 cost  the  least  and  lot  3 the 
most.  The  average  cost  for  the  24  head  was  $11.65  each. 

After  being  kept  without  food  or  water  for  12  hours,  the  steers 
shrank  from  3.4  per  cent  to  4.25  per  cent  of  their  full  weight.  The 
average  for  the  24  head  was  3.58  per  cent.  This  is  slighth^  less 
than  the  shrink  usually  estimated  in  buying,  viz:  4 per  cent.  The 
returns  per  head  for  the  steers  ranged  from  $49.13  each  for  the 
steers  in  lot  2 to  $53.66  for  the  steers  in  lot  4. 

Lot  4,  the  steers  fed  the  mixed  grain  ration,  returned  a profit 
of  $1.19  per  steer  after  paying  for  the  feed;  the  only  lot  that  re- 
turned an\^  profit.  On  lot  2,  fed  the  ration  of  oats  with  clover, 
the  loss  was  about  $2.00  on  each  steer,  on  lots  1 and  3 the  loss 
was  10c  for  each  steer.  From  a financial  point  of  view  this  looks 
like  rather  a poor  showing,  3^et  the  experiment  is  none  the  less  val- 
uable because  of  that  fact.  It  will  perhaps,  better  enforce  the  les- 
son that,  as  a rule,  in  finishing  steers  for  market  there  has  to  be  a 
wider  margin  of  profit  between  the  bu3dng  and  selling  price  than 
was  the  case  in  this  instance  with  Montana  prices  for  fodders. 
These  steers  were  bought,  on  a shrunk  weight,  at  about  3.8  cents 
per  pound  and  sold  for  4 cents  per  pound,  shrunk  live  weight.  For 
profit  the  margin  between  the  buying  and  selling  price  should  be 
from  %c  to  Ic  per  pound. 

There  is  yet  another  compensating  point  to  consider.  The  re- 
sults came  ver^^  close  to  pacing  market  prices  for  the  ha^"  and 
grain  fed,  and  if  through  his  stock  the  farmer  can  get  market 
prices  for  his  crop  on  his  farm,  both  the  farm  and  the  farmer  are 
better  off  for  having  them  so  sold.  At  market  prices  he  has  the 
profits  on  his  summer’s  harvest,  while  the  manure  adds  much  to 
the  fertility'  of  the  land. 


STEER  FEEDING. 


163 


WHERE  THE  PROFITS  COME  FROM. 


Briefly  put,  the  profit  in  the  fattening  of  this  class  of  steers  is 
in  the  difference  in  the  buying  and  selling  price  of  the  original 
weight  of  the  steer  and  not  in  any  profit  on  the  increase  in  live  weight 
made  during  the  feeding  period.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  following 
figures,  giving  the  cost  of  the  gains  made  for  the  past  three  years 
in  feeding  experiments  at  this  station. 


Cost  of  100  Pounds  of  Gain. 


1901 

1902 

1 

1 1903 

Lot  1 

Lot  2 

Lot  3 

Lot  4 

$1.85 

$5.16 

$5.31 

$1.00 

11  81 
$5.80 

$5.90 

$6.13 

$1.81 

$1.17 

Average 

$5.11 

$1.87 

$5.26 

These  Agues  are  comparable  only  in  a general  way,  as  the 
steers  differed  in  weight  and  quality.  The^^  show  in  every  case, 
however,  that  each  100  pounds  of  increase  in  live  weight  cost  close 
to  $5.00  on  the  average,  a little  above  or  below  that  figure.  At 
average  prices,  therefore,  there  can  be  no  profit  on  this  increase  in 
live  weight;  it  must  come  from  the  increase  in  value  of  the  original 
weight  of  the  animal. 


164 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Figure  1 represents  a type  of  undesirable  steer,  long  legged, 
slab-sided,  wild  and  restless.  Only  on  the  range  could  there  be  any 
profit  in  growing  such  an  animal.  The  profit  in  fattening  him 
would  depend  on  the  price  at  which  he  was  purchased. 

Figure  2 shows  a coarse  rough  steer  that  might  gain  in  live 
weight  rapidly  enough,  but,  however  well  fatted,  would  never  sell 
at,  or  near,  the  top  of  the  market. 

Figure  3 represents  the  best  feeding  type  of  steer  among  the 
car  load;  a two  year  old  with  some  width  and  depth  of  body,  a 
good  back  and  loin  and  good  feeding  qualit3^.* 

Pfigure  4 shows  the  steers,  and  the  sheds  and  yards  in  which 
the^'  were  fed.  The  sheds  and  \mrds  were  kept  well  bedded  and  it 
was  noticed  that  the  steers  sought  the  shelter  of  the  sheds  nearh^ 
eveiw  night. 


SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION. 


(1)  No  one  feeding  experiment  can  definiteh"  rnswer  the  ques- 
tions it  aims  to  solve.  The  work  must  be  repeated  for  some  3^ears 
and  under  a variety"  of  conditions.  The  results  here  given  are 
tentative  and  must  wait  future  confirmation. 

(2)  According  to  this  test  a mixed  grain  ration  proved  super- 
ior to  any  one  variet}-  of  grain.  If  the  feeding  efficiency'  as  to  rate 
of  gain  for  mixed  grain  was  placed  at  100,  then  wheat  equals  99.5 
oats  84  and  barley  equals  84.5. 

(3)  From  the  standpoint  of  the  food  eaten  for  100  pounds  of 
gain  in  live  weight,  the  wheat  ration  is  very'  slightly'  better  than 
the  mixed  grain,  with  oats  andbarley'  the  same  as  on  the  basis  of 
rate  of  gain. 

(4)  For  the  test  period  the  wheat  was  also  the  cheapest  ra- 
tion, one  pound  of  gain  costing  5 cents  on  this  ration,  while  the  cost 
on  the  mixed  grain  ration  was  5.2  cents,  on  the  barley  ration  the 
cost  was  6.3  cents  and  on  the  oats  ration  8 cents  per  pound  of  gain. 


STEER  FEEDIN(;. 


165 


(5)  It  was  noticed  that  the  cattle  tired  of  the  wheat  after  a 
couple  of  months  feeding  and  a change  was  necessary  to  get  the 
cattle  to  continue  to  eat-grain.  This  was  true  of  all  the  grains  fed 
but  not  to  the  same  extent  as  with  the  wheat. 

(6)  After  a gradual  change  of  the  rations  to  mixed  grain  with 
bran  the  cattle  ate  the  mixture  with  relish  and  made  the  most 
rapid  gains  of  the  winter. 

(7)  The  experiments  made  at  the  Station  for  the  past  three 
years  seem  to  show  that  on  the  average  the  profit  to  be  made  in 
fattening  two  to  three  ^^ear  old  steers,  with  Alontana  prices  for 
feeding  stuffs,  must  come  from  an  increase  in  the  value  of  the  pur- 
chased weight  of  the  steer. 

(8)  This  fact,  however,  does  not  make  less  important  the 
stitdy  of  the  relative  values  of  feeding  rations.  In  this  test  the 
difference  in  returns  between  the  best  and  the  poorest  ration  was 
$3.52  per  steer,  by  no  means  an  unimportant  item  in  feeding  a 
bunch  of  steers.  For  instance,  lot  4 gained  in  live  weight  281 
pounds  worth  at  4 cents  per  pound,  $11.24,  while  lot  2 gained 
only  188  pounds  worth  at  4 cents  per  pound  $7.52,  or  a difference 
of  $3.72:  but  lot  2 cost  20  cents  less  to  feed  so  that  the  net  differ- 
ence was  $3.52.  On  a hundred  steeys  this  would  mean  $352.00  as 
the  difference  in  returns  from  feeding  the  two  rations. 


BULLETIN  No.  49, 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL  ' 

Experiment  Station, 


OF  THE- 


A^rictilttiral  College  of  Montaiia. 


Contag^ious  Abortion  in  Montana 


Bozeman,  Montana,  October,  1903. 


BOZEMAN  REPUBUCAN-1903 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 


Kxperiment  Station. 

BOZEnAN,  = MONTANA. 

STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor,  ^ 

James  Donovan,  Attorney-General,  t Ex-Officio Helena. 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  ) 

J.  M.  Evans Missoula. 

C.  R.  Leonard, Butte. 

N.  W.  McConnell,  Helena. 

W.  M.  Johnston Billings. 

O.  P.  Chisholm Bozeman. 

J.  G.  McKay, Hamilton. 

G.  T.  Paul, Dillon. 

N.  B.  Holter, Helena. 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President, Bozeman. 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary, Bozeman. 

Joseph  Kountz, Bozeman. 

E.  B.  Lamme, Bozeman. 

John  Maxey Bozeman 


STATION  STAFF. 


*SAMUEr.  Fortier,  Ma.  E., 

P.  B.  LiNfield,  B.  S.  a, 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S. 
J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D. 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B . Sc., 

R.  W.  Fisher,  B.  S., 

Edmund  Burke 

W.  J.  Elliott, 

*Absent  on  leave. 


. Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer. 
. .Vice-Director  and  Agriculturist. 

Chemist. 

Botanist. 

Entomologist. 

Assistant  Horticulturist 

Assistant  Chemist. 

Assistant  Dairyman 


Postoffice,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be  addressed  to  the 
Director. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 


Notice. — The  Bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to  any  citizen  of 
Montana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the  Station  for  that  purpose. 


Conta^iotis  Abortioxi  in  Montana, 

BY  H.  C.  GARDINER. 

CONTENTS. 

Page 

Introduction 168 

Definition  and  Kinds  of  Abortion 170 

Symptoms  171 

\ 

Immunity .' 171 

Means  of  Transmission 172 

Treatment  173 

So-called  Remedies 175 

Disinfectants 175 

Conclusion 176 


Montana  Experiment  Station 


BULLETIN  NO.  49. 


OCTOBER,  1903. 


Contagious  Abortion  in  Montana. 

BY  H.  C.  GARDINER. 


Introduction. 


Contagious  abortion  as  a disease  is  considered  of  significance 
almost  equal  to  tuberculosis,  and  is  prevalent  both  in  Europe  and 
America.  As  a resnlt  of  its  widespread  distribution  and  serious  na^re 
it  has  been  carefully  investigated  on  both  continents,  and  particularly 
in  Scotland,  Denmark  and  France,  where  very  serious  losses  have  been 
experienced.  In  affected  districts  in-  Europe  the  losses  run  from 
twenty  to  sixty  per  cent  and  the  average  for  all  herds  is  five  per  cent. 
In  an  epidemic  in  the  Mississippi  valley  in  1889  the  losses  reached 
seventy-five  per  cent.  Under  such  conditions  breeding  has  to  be 
entirely  abandoned. 

The  work  of  the  Scottish  Abortion  Committee,  and  particularly 
the  work  of  Professor  Bang,  the  Danish  veterinarian,  and  of  Professor 
Nocard,  of  France,  has  been  of  the  greatest  importance.  Professor 
Bang  succeeded  in  isolating  the  germ  which  causes  contagious  abor- 
tion and  it  is  upon  the  treatment  recommended  by  him  that  the  dis- 
ease has  been  successfully  combated. 

The  attention  of  the  writer  was  called  to  the  existence  of  contag- 
ious abortion  in  Montana  by  an  inquiry  made  at  the  Experiment  Sta- 
tion by  Mr.  James  White,  of  Bozehaan,  who  was  having  trouble  from 
this  cause.  On  investigating  this  case  it  was  found  that  for  several 
years  losses  had  occurred  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Mr. 
White’s  ranch,  ranging  as  high  as  seventy  per  cent.  The  disease  in 
this  instance  had  been  gradually  spreading  in  that  locality  from  herd 
to  herd  and  this  spring  the  first  season  it  affected  Mr.  White’s  herd 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


169 


his  loss  was  about  thirty  per  cent.  In  order  to  determine  to  what 
extent  this  disease  prevailed  in  the  surrounding  country  about  one 
hundred  letters  were  sent  to  stockmen  in  Gallatin  and  Madison  valleys 
briefly  describing  the  disease  and  requesting  replies  to  the  following 
questions : 

1.  How"  many  of  your  cows  aborted  this  year? 

2.  How  many  of  your  cows  aborted  last  year? 

fl.  How  many  cows  have  you  in  your  herd? 

4.  Have  you  heard  of  anyone  in  your  locality  having  trouble? 
Please  give  name  and  address. 

5.  What  was  the  extent  of  their  losses? 

From  one  hundred  and  flve  letters  of  inquiry  seventy-seven  replies 
were  received,  and  of  the  seventy-seven,  thirty-eight  were  from  parties 
having  trouble;  the  losses  ranging  from  ten  to  eighty  per  cent.  In 
getting  these  figures  losses  which  were  small  and  in  all  probability  due 
to  accident  were  not  included,  only  those  beiug  considered  which  gave 
evidence  of  being  the  result  of  contagious  abortion.  In  one  instance 
a case  came  to  our  notice  in  which  there  had  been  a total  loss  extend- 
over  a period  of  three  years. 

We  have  also  found  that  abortion  is  causing  loss  in  various  parts 
of  the  state.  In  Teton  county  the  disease,  as  one  stockman  expressed 
it  in  writing  us,  “is  giving  serious  trouble.”  Losses  are  also  reported 
from  Chouteau,  Valley,  Cascade,  Fergus  and  Powell  counties  and  along 
the  Yellowstone. 

From  the  apparent  general  distribution  of  the  disease,  its  wide- 
spread prevalence  in  the  locality  investigated  and  its  contagious  nature, 
it  certainly  demands  the  prompt  attention  of  the  stockmen  of  Montana 
if  further  serious  losses  are  to  be  avoided.  So  serious  has  it  become 
in  portions  of  Gallatin  Valley  that  we  have  heard  on  reliable  authority 
that  some  stockmen  have  contemplated  abandoning  cattle  raising  for  a 
time  until  they  were  satisfied  they  could  avoid  the  disease;  and  for  the 
present,  at  least,  contemplate  reducing  their  herds.  A disease  which 
menaces  the  stock  raising  industry  of  the  state  is  a danger  which  men- 
aces the  welfare  of  the  whole  community  and  we  feel  that  every  effort 
should  be  made  on  the  part  of  the  stock  associations,  the  agricultural 


170 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


press,  and  the  stockmen  individually  to  stamp  out  this  disease.  That 
such  efforts  are  successful  are  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  some  eastern 
states  where  the  disease  was  very  prevalent  ten  to  fifteen  years  a^o  it 
has  been  entirely  eradicated  and  sections  which  had  a yearly  loss  of 
from  twenty-five  to  forty  per  cent  are  now  free  from  the  disease. 

DeAnitiofi  and  Kinds  of  A.l>ortion. 

Synonyms:  Contagious  abortion,  'infectious  abortion,  enzootic 
abortion,  epizootic  abortion. 

Abortion,  or  as  it  is  popularly  called,  “slinking,  slipping,  casting, 
or  losing”  the  calf  implies  premature  birth  of  the  foetus  (unborn  calf); 
a separation  of  the  foetus  from  the  uterus  (womb)  and  membranes  be- 
fore full  term.  Strictly  speaking,  a parturition  in  which  the  offspring 
is  mature  enough  to  live  is  called  a premature  parturition  or  prema- 
ture delivery  and  one  in  which  the  offspring  is  not  developed  enough 
to  live  a separate  existence  is  called  an  abortion.  We  will  term  all 
premature  births  abortions  in  this  Bulletin. 

There  are  two  forms  of  abortion  dependent  upon  the  cause.  The 
one  accidental  or  sporadic  abortion  and  the  other  contagious  or  enzoo- 
tic abortion  caused  by  a germ.  Under  some  circumstances  both 
causes  may  bring  about  abortion. 

The  causes  of  accidental  or  sporadic  abortion  may  be  enumerated 
briefly  as:  mechanical  injuries,  such  as  slipping,  falling,  being  hooked, 
jammed,  kicked,  etc.;  the  diseased  condition  of  the  dam,  insufficient 
or  innutritions  forage,  early  breeding,  in  and  in  breeding,  purging  as 
the  result  of  the  administration  of  drugs  or  the  ingestion  of  poisonous 
plants,  from  musty  or  easily  fermentable  fodder,  from  ergotized  grasses 
or  grain,*  from  shock  resulting  from  storms  and  exposure,  from  prema- 
ture death  of  the  foetus  owing  to  twisting  of  the  umbilical  cord,  and 


* While  visiting  in  Beaverhead  county  recently,  the  writer  observed  a very  large  amount  of 
native  rye  grass  that  was  very  badly  affected  with  ergot,  the  heads  of  rye  in  many  cases  being 
almost  black  with  the  long  spikes  of  ergot  protruding  from  the  chaff  on  the  head.  W’hile,  with 
the  other  feed  available,  the  stock  would  probably  not  eat  these  dry  stalks  of  rye  grass,  yet  if 
feed  was  scarce,  they  might  eat  considerable  of  it. 

Upon  inquiry  it  was  found  that  in  some  seasons  the  stock  running  in  this  field  were  troubled 
more  or  less  with  abortion,  but  the  owner  had  not  recognized  or  thought  of  the  ergot  as  a cause. 
Later,  ergotized  rye  was  noticed  in  other  parts  of  the  state  and  it  was  thought,  therefore,  not 
amiss  to  call  attention  to  this  danger.  F.  B.  Linfield,  Dir. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


171 


from  the  odor  of  decomposed  animal  matter  or  any  other  source  whi3h 
greatly  excites  or  irritates. 

The  primary  cause  of  contagious  abortion  is  a germ  which  Profes- 
sor Bang  isolated  in  1896  and  with  which  he  experimentally  inoculated 
cattle  and  in  nearly  every  case  produced  an  abortion.  In  these  exper- 
iments he  chose  animals  from  herds  which  were  known  to  be  free  from 
the  disease,  and  he  found  the  germ  in  those  aborting  animals  he  inoc- 
ulated and  in  the  foetuses. 

The  germs  which  produce  abortion  are  found  between  the  attach- 
ments of  the  afterbirth  and  the  womb,  and  here  they  develop  and  bring 
about  a catarrh  of  the  uterus  and  also  an  inflammation  of  the  after- 
birth, at  the  same  time  depositing  a secretion  between  these  tissues 
which  gradually  forces  thenv  apart  and  as  a result  destroys  the  circu- 
lation in  the  membranes  surrounding  the  calf  and  cuts  off  its  supply 
of  nourishment.  In  the  experimental  inoculation  a period  of  ten 
weeks  was  found  necessary  before  abortion  was  produced. 

Sy’mptoms. 

Owing  to  the  diseased  conditions  of  the  mucous  membrane  con- 
tagious abortion  sometimes  takes  the  form  of  temporary  sterility,  the 
animal  coming  in  “heat”  but  failing  to  conceive.  If  conception  takes 
place  the  abortion  usually  occurs  after  the  foetus  has  attained  a con- 
siderable development,  usually  occurring  from  the  third  to  the  seventh 
month.  Occasionally  the  early  symptoms  pass  unnoticed,  but  in  most 
instances  there  will  be  some  heat  and  an  enlargement  of  the  udder 
and  a discharge  from  the  vulva  of  a white  or  yellow  mucous  which  is 
very  unlike  the  normal  transparent  mucous  which  discharges  during 
heat.  After  abortion  the  membranes  are  usually  retained  and  in  some 
cases  a putrid  discharge  continues  for  some  time.  The  afterbirths  in 
such  cases  should  be  carefully  removed,  the  animal  disinfected  and 
not  bred  again  until  in  a healthy  condition. 

Immunity. 

Abortion,  like  many  other  germ  diseases,  confers  immunity  after 
attack,  and  in  this  case  cattle  usually  acquire  an  immunity  after  from 
one  to  five  attacks.  In  general  it  is  probable  that  the  average  cow 


172 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION, 


becomes  immune  after  from  one  to  three  attacks.  This  immunity,^ 
however,  loes  not  prevent  the  animal  from  transmitting  the  disease  to 
the  remainder  of  the  herd  and  she  may  still  be  a source  of  danger  to 
the  bull  and  to  the  cows  she  may  come  in  contact  with,  Herds  too, 
occasionally  become  free  from  the  disease  after  a comparatively  severe 
attack  and  cases  are  recorded  where  after  a severe  attack  the  disease 
has  wholly  disappeared.  In  some  instances  it  breaks  out  again  and 
unless  proper  means  are  taken  to  prevent  re-infection  and  to  stamp  it 
out  there  is  always  the  uncertainty  of  a future  attack  and  in  most  in- 
stances a more  or  less  severe  continuation  of  the  trouble  as  new  ani- 
mals are  added  and  as  the  heifers  are  bred.  In  some  years  the  disease 
is  much  more  severe  than  others  depending  probably  upon  climatic 
conditions  or  other  conditions  favorable  to  the  development  or  preser- 
vation of  the  germs. 

Means  of  Transmission. 

Any  means  which  will  transfer  the  germs  from  the  genital  parts 
of  one  animal  to  another  is  a method  of  transmission.  The  primary 
source  of  infection  it  is  generally  conceded  by  all  investigators  and 
veterinarians  is  from  the  bull.  Bred  to  an  infected  animal  the  bull  be- 
comes infected  and  in  a most  perfect  manner  infects  the*  remainder  of 
the  animals  to  which  he  is  bred,  We  have  noted  three  cases  in  parti- 
cular in  which  the  bull  has  been  responsible  for  the  infection  of  a 
herd.  In  two  instances  the  bull  was  purchased  from  a herd  which 
was  infected  and  taken  to  a herd  which  bad  previously  been 
entirely  free  from  the  disease,  the  result  was  that  the  next  season 
both  herds,  i^reviously  uninfected,  were  aborting  badly.  Another 
instance  in  which  a neighbor’s  bull  from  an  aborting  herd 
broke  through  a fence  into  a pasture  with  a herd  that  had  previously 
been  uninfected  and  the  result  was  that  fifty  per  cent  of  the  previously 
uninfected  herd  aborted  that  year.  Many  similar  cases  are  recorded 
by  investigators  in  Europe. 

Another  source  and  probably  one  of  minor  importance  in  Mon- 
tana is  the  infection  which  comes  from  animals  coming  in  contact  with 
walls,  litter,  etc.  in  stables,  which  have  previously  been  infected  by 
coming  in  contact  with  the  mucous  or  catarrhal  discharge  from  in- 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


178 


fected  animals.  Still  another  source  of  infection  and  probably  the  one 
second  in  importance  comes  from  the  habit  which  cattle  have  of 
smelling  and  rubbing  their  noses  on  each  other  and  transferring  the 
the  bacteria  by  this  means  and  further  by  cattle  jumping  each  other 
when  in  “heat.” 

Treatment. 

The  treatment  advised  for  contagious  abortion  is  wholly  one  of 
disinfection,  and  since  the  ge'^ms  causing  this  disease  is  localized  on 
the  genital  organs  it  is  a comparatively  easy  matter  to  fight  them. 
Where  cattle  are  stabled  and  are  aborting  the  stables  must  be  thor- 
oughly disinfected  and  the  aborting  ones  separated  from  the  healthlj; 
stock.  This  condition,  however,  will  apply  to  few  herds  in  Montana, 
but  it  is  worthy  of  mention  since  the  chances  of  infection  are  greater 
with  stabled  stock  and  the  disease  resultingly  harder  to  fight.  In 
treating  an  aborting  herd  the  first  precaution  to  observe  is  to  imme- 
diately burn  or  bury  deeply  the  aborted  calf  and  afterbirth  and  isolate 
the  cow  to  prevent  the  spread  of  infection  from  these  sources.  It  is  a 
good  plan  also  to  remove  a cow  from  the  herd  which  shows  symptoms 
of  abortion  until  it  is  seen  whether  she  is  infected  or  not.  As  a pre- 
caution to  prevent  the  spread  of  infection  all  the  cattle  in  an  aborting 
herd  should  receive  at  least  one  disinfection,  and  to  do  this  properly 
the  part  of  the  herd  which  has  been  exposed  should  be  disinfected 
first.  As  many  of  these  cattle  will  be  carrying  calves  the  disinfection 
will  consist  simply  in  cleansing  the  outside  parts  thoroughly  with  a 
one  in  one-thousand  corrosive  sublimate  solution  or  a three  per  cent 
creolin  or  lysol  solution  and  flushing  out  the  vagina  with  from  one  to 
two  quarts  of  a one  and  one-half  per  cent  of  lysol  or  Creolin-Pearson 
solution.  Four  men  with  convenient  chute  and  corrals  can  handle 
one  hundred  head  in  a day  in  this  manner,  with  but  little  more  trouble 
than  dehorning.  This  disinfection  will  not  destroy  any  germs  in  the 
uterus  but  will  destroy  any  which  are  working  their  way  in  through 
the  vagina  from  recent  infection. 

The  bull  should  next  be  treated  first  by  clipping  the  hair  from 
around  the  sheath  then  disinfecting  externally  as  before  advised,  and 
running  a rubber  tube  or  douche  up  the  sheath  and  closing  the  open- 
ing of  the  sheath  the  fluid  can  be  worked  around  by  external  mani- 


174 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


pulation  and  a thorough  disinfection  accomplished.  During  the 
breeding  season  this  should  be  done  frequently  particularly  if  there  is 
possibility  of  the  bull’s  becoming  infected.  Five  minutes  time  will 
do  all  the  w^ork  necessary,  the  ugly  animals  even  standing  very  quietly. 
The  work  is  most  easily  done  in  the  chute  taking  the  next  to  the  bot- 
tom board  off  the  side  to  work  through,  and  tying  one  of  the  animals 
hind  legs  back  to  prevent  injury  to  the  operator. 

The  method  of  treatment  of  aborting  animals  varies  with  the  size 
of  the  herd.  With  small  herds  where  only  a few  animals  abort  it  is 
best  to  take  an  animal  when  it  aborts  and  flush  out  at  once,  repeating 
about  six  times  in  ten  days.  With  larger  herds  it  is  doubtless  best  to 
isolate  the  aborting  animals  in  a pasture  by  themselves  and  wdien 
calving  time  is  over  disinfect  all  the  aborting  animals  at  one  time. 
They  should  be  disinfected  at  least  six  times  and  the  womb  thoroughly 
flushed  out.  In  order  to  do  this  properly  the  right  arm  must  be  care- 
fully introduced  into  the  vagina  and  the  tube  or  douche  passed  through 
the  neck  of  the  uterus  into  the  womb.  In  disinfecting  the  uterus  we 
use  a weaker  solution,  one  per  cent,  owing  to  the  greater  sensitiveness 
of  the  membrane.  From  one  to  two  gallons  is  necessary  for  this 
flushing  which  should  De  thorough,  the  amount  of  fluid  depending 
upon  how  recently  the  animal  aborted;  the  uterus  being  more  dilated 
if  the  abortion  be  recent.  The  same  precautions  ar-e  to  be  observed 
in  disinfecting  the  external  parts. 

In  handling  the  animals  a chute  such  as  is  used  in  dehorning  is 
very  satisfactory.  A platform  can  be  erected  over  it  and  a barrel  or 
tub  containing  the  disinfecting  solutions  placed  on  top  of  that  at  an 
elevation  of  about  ten  feet  above  the  cows  back.  The  solution  may 
be  siphoned  out  and  about  fifteen  feet  of  rubber  tubing  5-16  inch  in 
diameter  is  necessary.  A uterine  douche  is  a great  convenience  for 
this  work  such  as  is  shown  in  cut.  These  instruments  can  be  secured 
from  Sharp  & Smith,  92  Wabash  ave.,  Chicago,  or  Haussmann  & 
Dunn  Co.,  107  S.  Clark  st.,  Chicago,  or  from  any  veterinary  instrument 
dealer  at  a cost  of  about  $3.  Special  care  should  be  exercised  in  the 
disinfection  not  to,  infect  the  healthy  animals  and  hands  and  utensils 
of  the  operator  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected  by  w^ashing  with  a 
three  per  cent  solution  of  lysol  or  creolin. 


MONTANA  EXPEEIMENT  STATION. 


175 


In  April  and  May  the  writer  directed  the  disinfection  of  two 
herds  near  Bozeman.  The  owner  of  one  herd  of  125  head  of  range 
cattle  said  he  considered  the  disinfection  but  little  more  work  than  de- 
horning and  I was  satisfied  that  four  men  with  proper  facilities  could 
disinfect  100  of  the  animals  which  had  been  exposed  or  about  60  in- 
fected animals  in  a day.  The  owner  of  the  other  herd  said  he  consid- 
ered the  disinfection  so  simple  that  he  would  in  future  disinfect  his 
bull  weekly  during  the  breeding  season.  In  the  disinfection  of  these 
herds  the  conditions  were  met  which  will  apply  in  general  to  all  herds. 
The  methods  followed  were  exactly  as  advised  in  this  bulletin  and  in 
actual  use  were  found  to  be  quite  practical. 

So-called  Remedies  and  Treatment. 

Owing  to  the  peculiar  character  of  this  disease  particularly  with 
reference  to  affected  animals  becoming  immune  many  have  been  mis- 
led in  prescribing  remedies  which  apparently  had  a beneficial  effect 
but  which  happened  to  be  administered  just  when  the  disease  is  on 
the  decline.  Manufacturers  of  quack  remedies  knowing  the  peculiar- 
ities of  this  disease  following  the  wake  of  almost  every  attack  of  abor- 
tion and  undertake  to  cure  the  aborting  animals;  as  a result  they  reap 
a rich  harvest  for  they  give  their  medicine  just  when  the  trouble  is 
over. 

Fluid  extract  of  Black  Haw  and  carbolic  acid  have  been  recom- 
mended as  valuable  medicinal  treatment  for  this  disease  but  their  re- 
putation has  been  gained  chiefly  from  the  fact  that  they  have  been  ad- 
ministered in  a number  of  instances  just  when  the  disease  was  on  the 
decline  and  as  a result  got  undeserved  credit.  With'  reference  to  car- 
bolic acid  were  it  used  in  sufficient  strength  to  kill  the  bacteria  it 
would  kill  the  animal  and  further  carbolic  acid  is  converted  as  soon  as 
it  enters  the  intestinal  tract  into  a form  called  sulphophenic  acid  which 
is  inert  and  has  no  effect  upon  bacteria.  Carbolic  acid  can  have  but 
one  beneficial  influence  and  that  is  as  an  intestinal  antiseptic,  and 
considering  the  nature  of  the  disease  there  is  in  all  probability  little 
opportunity  for  infection  from  the  intestinal  tract. 

Disinfectants. 

Corrosive  sublimate  or  bi-chloride  of  mercury  is  put  up  in  tablets 


176 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


whijh  can  be  obtained  at  any  drug  store  with  directions  for  making- 
one  in  one-thousand  solution.  Usually  one  tablet  to  a quart  or  pint  is 
the  strength  required. 

Creolin-Pearson  and  lysol  are  used  in  preference  to  carbolic  acid 
as  disinfectants  because  they  mix  much  more  readily  and  thoroughly 
with  water  than  does  carbolic  acid  and  in  the  proportions  recommended, 
one  and  two  parts  to  the  hundred  parts  of  water,  make  very  complete  mix- 
tures either  with  cold  or  warm  water.  Warm  water  is  to  be  preferred. 
Both  are  coal  tar  products  and  can  be  obtained  from  any  drug  store 
Creolin-Pearson  is  specially  recommended  because  of  the  fact  that  it  is 
a definite  chemical  compound  and  does  not  contain  many  of  the  im- 
purities which  are  found  in  the  cruder  and  cheaper  products.  Lysol 
may  be  considered  equally  good  and  has  the  advantage  of  being  a 
trifle  cheaper. 

Conclusion. 

The  treatment  recommended  may  be  modified  in  grade  herds  in 
which  the  cattle  are  worth  as  much  for  beef  as  for  breeding.  In  this 
case  the  aborting  animals  had  best  be  isolated  and  then  fattened  and 
beefed.  Precautionary  measures  should  then  be  taken  with  the  re- 
mainder of  the  herd  by  treating  as  before  advised.  Particular  care 
being  taken  to  thoroughly  and  frequently  disinfect  the  bulls.  In  this 
way  the  disease  can  be  readily  and  cheaply  stamped  out  by  the  second 
or  third  year.  With  better  graded  stock  it  will  pay  to  disinfect  both 
aborting  and  exposed  animals  and  eradicate  the  disease  as  before  de- 
scribed. In  general  the  disease  may  be  avoided  by  disinfection  of 
newly  purchased  stock;  by  care  to  avoid  purchasing  breeding  stock  or 
bulls  from  aborting  herds;  by  as  far  as  possible  keeping  stock  from 
aborting  herds  and  by  frequent  disinfection  of  breeding  bulls. 


BULLETIN  No.,  50, 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

Experiment  Station, 

OF  THE 


Ag(ric\ilttiral  College  of  Montana. 


I Poultry  Management. 

II  Poultry  Diseases 


Bozeman,  Montana,  October,  1903. 


BOZEMAN  REPUBLICAN-1903 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 


Kxperiment  Station. 

BOZEHAN,  = MONTANA. 

STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor,  ^ 

James  Donovan,  Attorney-General,  i Ex-Officio Helena. 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  ) 

J.  M.  Evans, Missoula. 

C.  R.  Leonard, Butte. 

N.  W.  McConnell, Helena. 

W.  M.  Johnston Billings. 

O.  P.  Chisholm, Bozeman. 

J.  G.  McKay, Hamilton. 

G.  T.  Paul, Dillon. 

N.  B.  Holter, Helena. 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President, Bozeman. 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary, Bozeman. 

Joseph  Kountz, Bozeman. 

E.  B.  Lamme, Bozeman. 

John  Maxey Bozeman 


STATION  STAFF. 


*Samuel,  Fortier,  Mla.  E., 

F.  B.  Linfield,  B.  S.  a, 

F.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S.,  . 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D., 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc 

R.  W.  Fisher,  B.  S., 

Edmund  Burke 

W.  J.  Elliott, 

^Absent  on  leave. 


Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer. 
.Vice-Director  and  Agriculturist. 

Chemist. 

Botanist. 

Entomologist. 

Assistant  Horticulturist 

. . Assistant  Chemist. 

Assistant  Dairyman 


Postoffice,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be  addressed  to  the 
Director. 

MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 


Notice. — The  Bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to  any  citizen  of 
Montana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the  Station  for  that  purpose. 


I Poultry  Management 

11  Poultry  Diseases 


CONTENTS 

Poultry  Management 

Introduction 180 

Poultry  House 182 

Ventilation 184 

Dimensions 185 

Nest  Box  186 

Storm  Door 187 

Size  of  House  and  Pens T 187 

The  Stock  to  Select 187 

Comfortable  Quarters 188 

Feeding  Poultry 189 

Poultry  Diseases 

Introduction 191 

Roupe 191 

Symptoms 192 

Treatment 193 

Catarrh  193 

Gapes 194 

Symptoms 194 

Treatment 195 

Lice  195 


Montana  Experiment  Station 


BULLETIN  NO.  50.  - ■=  OCTOBER,  1903. 


Poultry  Management. 

F.  B.  Linfield 


Inirodtictioxi 

Poultry  and  poultry  products  because  of  the  smallness  of  the  in- 
dividual producer,  and  also  of  the  product,  is  thought  by  many  to  be 
an  insignificant  business,  yet,  because  of  the  wide  and  universal  de- 
mand, is  one  of  the  large  industries  of  the  country.  The  yearly  value 
of  the  product  of  the  American  hen  is  close  to  $300,000,000,  larger 
than  any  other  one  industry  except  the  cow. 

There  is  yet  much  room  for  the  growth  of  the  poultry  industry  in 
Montana,  according  to  the  statistics  gathered  by  Mr.  C.  H.  Edwards 
during  the  year  of  1891.  It  would  appear  that  about  $1,500,000  worth 
of  poultry  and  poultry  products  from  outside  the  state  found  a market 
in  Montana — about  $5.00  for  each  person  in  the  state. 

To  those  not  initiated,  and  to  the  person  who  handles  a few 
fowls,  no  business  seems  so  simple  as  that  of  handling  poultry  and  yet 
few  businesses  have  so  many  failures  to  record  when  started  on  a com- 
mercial scale.  Much  more  knowledge,  skill  and  careful  management 
is  needed,  if  success  is  to  be  attained,  than  many  suppose.  A person 
must  know  his  flock  and  with  patience  watch  them  from  day  to  day, 
and  by  proper  methods  of  care  and  feeding  maintain  the  birds  in  the 
best  condition  of  health  and  vigor.  To  attain  success  with  poultry  a 
man  must  in  a measure  be  a poultryman,  he  must  have  a liking  for 
the  business,  and  the  patience  that  looks  after  every  detail  in  the  care 
of  the  birds,  however  small  it  may  be. 

My  observation  would  lead  me  to  the  generalization  that  the 
organs  concerned  with  maternity  in  animals  are  more  economic  pro- 
ducers of  concentrated  food  products,  possessing  greater  elasticity  of 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


181 


production  and  are  capable  of  greater  extention  and  development  than 
any  other  construction  forces  in  the  body  of  the  animal.  This  is  il- 
lustrated in  several  directions.  An  old  animal  will  not  fatten  as  eco- 
mically  as  a young  one,  but  the  old  animal  will  grow  a foetus  as  eco- 
nomically. The  old  animal  again,  will  produce  milk  as  economically 
as  the  young  animal.  The  young  animal  retains  much  of  the  produc- 
tive qualities  of  the  maternal  organs  of  the  mother,  and  considering 
its  weight,  gains  in  live  weight  much  faster  and  more  economically 
than  later  in  life.  Poultry  also  illustrate  this  same  general  principle. 
In  the  production  of  eggs  the  maternal  organs  of  the  animals  are  con- 
cerned. A six  pound  hen  of  the  laying  strain  will  produce  from  2 to 
4 times  her  own  weight  in  eg^s  in  a year,  and  this  she  will  do  with 
about  sixty  pounds  of  dry  matter  in  feed.  A six  pound  hen  on  feed 
costing  not  to  exceed  75c  to  80c  will  produce  from  $2.50  to  $3.00  worth 
of  eggs  at  Montana  prices— 25c  per  dozen  on  the  average. 

It  is  within  comparatively  recent  times  that  attention  has  been 
paid  to  selecting  poultry  on  the  basis  of  egg  records,  but  the  result 
has  shown  that  there  is  just  as  great  room  for  increased  production  in 
this  line  as  with  milk  production  in  the  cow.  Poultry,  therefore,  are 
among  our  most  economic  food  producing  animals.  Again  the  prices 
offered  in  the  state  are  such  as  should  assure  a very  profitable  market 
for  the  home  producer. 

Those  who  assay  to  obtain  proficiency  in  the  handling  of  poultry, 
however,  should  be  students  of  poultry  books  and  poultry  papers. 
These  record  the  experience  of  other  men,  their  successes  and  their 
failures,  experiences  which  will  be  of  very  great  value  to  the  beginner 
and  not  invaluable  to  the  most  experienced. 

Success  with  poultry  comes  from  so  handling  them  as  to  avoid 
disease,  rather  than  the  ability  to  fight  the  disease  when  it  appears 
important  as  this  latter  may  be.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  a few  brief 
thoughts  are  added  on  the  general  treatment  of  fowls.  Profits  come 
from  healthy  fowls  not  from  sick  ones.  It  is  very  important,  however, 
to  recognize  the  disease  when  it  does  come,  as  come  it  may  in  the  best 
managed  flock,  so  that  the  loss  may  be  reduced  to  a minimum  and  to 
enable  us  to  treat  the  birds  successfully  and  thus  save  a valuable  flock 
for  future  usefulness. 


182 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


TKe  Poultry  House 

In  the  Montana  climate,  probably  the  first  consideration  should 


Building  on  Montana  State  Farm. 

be  a good  house.  It  need  not  be  expensive,  but  it  should  be  warm, 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


183 


sunny  and  dry.  Cheap  lumber  and  building  paper  with  plenty  of 
window  lights  will  give  these  requirements.  In  this  connection  I 
probably  could  not  do  better  than  describe  the  construction  of  the 
house  used  on  the  Station  farm  and  also  a house  of  a smaller  size 
recommended  by  the  Experiment  Station  of  Utah. 

Fig.  1.  illustrates  a model  form  of  poultry  building,  and  is  with 
the  exception  of  some  slight  details  of  the  same  construction  as  our 
main  building.  This  house  is  14  feet  wide,  pens  12  feet  long  with 
walls,  roof,  floor  and  windows  constructed  as  previously  described  by 
the  wall  double  boarded  inside  and  out  with  tar  paper  between.  The 
floor  also  double,  and  on  the  roof  tar  paper  beneath  the  shingles.  A 
four  foot  passage  way  runs  throughout  the  rear.  Access  to  the  pens 
is  through  doors  two  feet  wide,  which  open  inward  against  a partition 
between  the  pens.  This  partition  is  matched  stuff  for  2 feet  and  then 
wire  netting  up  to  the  ceiling.  The  arrangements  of  the  roosts  (K), 
the  drop  boards  (D.  B.),  the  nest  boxes  (N.  B.)  and  the  feed  board  are 
very  simple.  The  fowls  are  fed  their  soft  feed  through  the  slatted 
front  of  the  pen  upon  the  hinged  feed  door,  which  when  not  in  use,  is 
hooked  in  a perpendicular  position.  These  slats  are  three  inches 
apart  and  fourteen  inches  high.  Immediately  above  upon  a platform 
20  inches  wide,  the  nest  boxes  are  placed  facing  the  passageway. 
Eggs  are  gathered  from  them  by  opening  the  hinged  door  in  the  pass- 
ageway which  extends  in  front  of  the  platform.  Nests  are  best  made 
of  ^ inch  lumber,  boxes  12x12x14  inches  dimension.  Above  the  nest 
boxes  is  another  platform  22  inches  wide  vdiich  catches  tha  droppings 
from  the  roosts.  This  drop  board  (D.  B.)  extends  about  1^  inches  into 
the  passageway  so  that  in  cleaning  the  edge  a pail  may  catch  under  it. 
The  roosts  are  placed  6 inches  above  the  drop  boards  and  are  2x3^ 
inches  with  corners  rounded  off  and  the  flat  side  up.  (V)  Ventilator 
is  placed  in  the  corner  of  the  pen  close  to  the  passageway,  and  the  dam- 
per is  operated  therefrom.  The  exit  through  the  floor  is  surrounded  by 
a box  as  shown.  This  is  to  prevent  litter  from  falling  through.  The  front 
wall  is  inclined  inward  two  feet  at  the  top  in  order  to  take  greater  advan- 
tage of  the  sunlight,  and  the  building  is  sealed  with  matched  flooring 
upon  the  lower  side  of  the  collar  beam.  Where  it  is  intended  to  keep 
only  40  or  50  birds,  a saving  of  space  may  be  affected  by  running  the 


184 


MONTANA  EXPEEIMENT  STATION 


passageway  through  the  center  of  the  building  from  front  to  rear,  mak 
ing  two  pens  and  arranging  nest  boxes,  etc.,  on  either  side  of  the  pass- 
age way,  with  the  door  on  the  no]:th  side  and  the  ventilators  on 
either  side 

Ventilation. 

Proper  ventilation  is  an  important  factor  in  the  management  of 
the  poultry  house,  and  the  object  should  be  to  remove  the  foul  air  and 
retain  the  warmer  and  puller  air  without  causing  a draft.  Our  method 
of  securing  this  result  is  simple.  An  ordinary  stove-iDipe  with  damper 
extends  from  a hood  on  the  roof  to  within  six  inches  of  the  floor.  The 
The  lighter  and  warmer  air  near  the  roof  of  the  building  warms  the 
metal  pipe  which  is  a good  conductor,  which  in  turn  warms  the  air  in- 
side causing  it  to  rise  slowly.  As  a result,  the  air  flows  into  the  xhpe 
from  the  opening  near  the  floor,  this  gradually  removes  the  air  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  fowl.  We  have  found  this  method  an  ad- 
mirable one  in  our  practice,  performing  the  work  excellently. 


±0'  iO'  -Y- io'  iO’  t....-, 

i : ^ ^ 


House  on  Utah  Station  Farm 

“I  give  here  a sketch  of  'a  poultry  house  that  will  answer  most 
X^urposes.  It  will  be  suitable  for  ' the  farm  and  also  for  the  town  lot. 
It  can  be  extended  to  any  length  desired,  or  it  may  be  cut  in  two 
where  only  a small  number  of  fowls  are  to  be  kept.  The  dimensions 
given  are  for  a house  that  will  accomodate  about  fifty  of  the  smaller 
breeds  of  fowls  and  about  forty  of  the  larger. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


185 


Dimensions. 

“It  is  forty  feet  long  and  10  feet  wide,  divided  into  two  pens, 
each  ten  by  twenty  feet,  ten  feet  of  the  closed  part  being  for  the  roost- 
ing and  laying  apartment  and  ten  feet  open  scratching  shed.  It  is 
eight  feet  high  at  the  front  and  four  feet  at  the  back.  The  outside 
yards  should  be  about  20x100  feet  each.  There  is  no  hallway,  but 
there  is  a door  entering  from  the  open  shed  into  the  closed  part.  The 
partition  between  the  two  outside  pens  may  be  of  wire  netting  but 
there  should  be  about  two  feet  of  boards  at  the  bottom  to  prevent  the 
fowls  lighting  through  the  wire. 

Materials 

“The  sills  should  be  about  4x6.  For  framework  and  rafters  use 
2x4  stuff.  On  outside  of  studs  nail  good  common  lumber  close  to- 
gether. On  top  of  this  tarred  paper;  then  on  top  of  this  put  on 
tongued  and  grooved  lumber  up  and  down.  For  the  roof  use  common 
sheeting  laid  close  together.  On  top  of  this  place  tarred  paper,  then 
shingles.  Instead  of  shingles  Neponsit  Red  Rope  paper  may  be  used. 
The  door  opening  into  the  scratching  shed  should  fit  tightl}^'  and  if 
necessary  a storm  door  should  be  put  on  in  winter  to  shut  out  cold  and 
draught.  The  window  should  open  into  each  of  the  closed  pens.  This 
should  be  about  24x24  inches,  and  it  should  be  double  in  winter.  It 
should  be  low  enough  down  so  that  the  sun  in  winter  entering  the 
the  window  will  fall  on  the  floor.  The  end  walls  of  the  scratching 
shed  need  not  be  double  boarded  and  papered,  but  should 
be  airtight. 

“In  the  colder  portions  of  the  state  it  may  be  necessary  to  use 
another  thickness  of  boards  and  paper  in  the  closed  pens.  In  that  case 
another  layer  of  paper  can  be  put  on  the  studs  and  tongued  and 
grooved  boards  on  top  of  that.  But  probably  a better  arrangement 
would  be  to  nail  sheeting  on  the  studs  and  put  Neponset  Red  Rope 
roofing  on  top  of  that.  That  makes  a good  lining.  All  lumber  in  the 
inside  of  the  building  should  be  planed.  This  makes  it  easier  to  keep 
the  house  free  from  vermin.  Instead  of  lumber  the  walls  of  the  closed 
pen  may  be  made  of  brick  with  adobe  lining.  Some  claim  that  this 
will  be  warmer  and  drier. 


186 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


Nest  Box 

“One  of  the  important  things  in  the  poultry  house  is  the  nest. 
To  prevent  egg-eating  the  box  should  be  dark  and  shallow.  The  cut 
shows  a good  plan.  It  shows  a roosting  platform  with  a row  of  nests 
underneath.  This  plan  is  recommended  by  the  Reliable  Poultry  Jour- 
nal. If  intended  for  Leghorns,  or  medium  sized  hens,  nests  12x12 
inches  and  7 or  8 inches  high  will  be  about  right.  If  for  Brahamas  or 
Cochins  they  should  be  about  15x15  and  10  inches  high.  Have  some 
chaff  or  other  good  material  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  so  that  there  will 
be  less  danger  of  the  eggs  breaking,  as  a broken  egg  in  the  nest  is  al- 


most a sure  way  of  teaching  the  hens  to  eat  eggs.  The  bottom  board  of 
the  nest  shown  in  the  illustration  should  be  hinged  to  the  wall  of  the 
poultry  house  so  as  to  open  upward.  The  upright  which  holds  the 
bottom  board  in  position  is  also  on  a hinge  so  it  can  be  kicked  from 
under  the  board  to  allow  cleaning.  The  top  board  or  roosting  platform 
should  be  built  on  an  incline  and  also  hinged  to  the  wall  so  it  can  be 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


187 


raised  to  get  at  the  eggs.  The  roosting  pole  should  be  about  six 
inches  above  the  platform  and  may  be  1x3  inches,  the  hens  sitting  on 
the  wide  surface. 

Storm  Door 

“For  stormy  weather  there  should  be  provided  a storm  door  for 
the  open  shed.  This  may  be  made  of  oiled-canvass  tacked  on  to  a 
light  frame  and  should  be  hinged  at  the  top  so  that  it  can  be  hooked 
up  to  the  ceiling  when  not  needed.” 

Size  of  lionise  and  Pens 

The  size  of  poultry  house  usually  recommended  is  one  that  will 
give  about  6 to  8 square  feet  of  floor  space  to  each  bird.  Thus,  a pen 
10x12  feet  will  accomodate  15  to  20  birds. 

The  modern  practice  is  not  to  allow  the  fowls  the  run  of  the  farm  ^ 
except  perhaps  for  a month  or  two  in  the  fall  after  the  crop  is  off,  but 
to  confine  them  in  yards  near  the  house.  These  yards  or  runs  should 
afford  50  to  100  square  feet  of  space  for  each  bird.  Part  of  the  run 
should  be  planted  to  clover  and  grass.  In  part  sunflowers  may  be 
planted  for  summer  shade  and  fall  feed,  and  part  may  be  cultivated  for 
a succession  of  green  crops  during  the  summer. 

THe  Stock  to  Select 

For  satisfactory  results,  good  birds  are  needed,  and  here  as  with 
other  classes  of  livestock,  pure  breds  and  not  cross-breds  or  scrubs  are 
to  be  preferred,  particularly  on  the  side  of  the  male.  Again,  get  a 
good  strain  of  the  breed  selected,  a strain  noted  as  large  egg  producers. 
Poultrymen  are  now  gathering  such  data  and  breeding  for  a record. 

The  profit  with  poultry  will  in  a large  measure  be  influenced  by 
the  time  the  eggs  are  produced.  During  the  late  fall  and  winter 
months,  fresh  eggs  command  a fancy  price.  Young  stock,  the  early 
hatched  pullet,  is  the  bird  that  under  proper  care  will  produce  eggs  at 
this  season.  Not  alone  is  the  young  bird  an  early  layer,  but  they  also 
produce  the  largest  number  of  eggs  per  year.  As  a rule  the  first  two 
years  are  the  profitable  egg-producing  years  of  the  fowl’s  life.  These 
birds  should  not  be  kept  over  the  third  winter  except  perhaps  for  the 


188 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


purpose  of  producing  eggs  for  hatching,  if  an  extra  fowl.  This  larger 
return  from  the  young  fowl  many  people  seem  to  forget,  yet  it  is  a 
very  important  fact  in  poultry  profits. 

Comfortable  Quarters 

In  the  proper  feeding  and  proper  care  of  fowls  is  where  perhaps 
most  people  fail.  Fowls  as  a rule  will  not  produce  eggs  if  subjected 
to  the  continuous  cold  weather  of  winter.  They  must  therefore  be 
comfortably  housed.  There  is  danger  here,  however.  During  the  day 
with  the  sun  shining  on  the  building,  the  house  warms  up  and  the 
warm  air  takes  up  much  moisture.  During  the  night,  on  the  other  hand 
the  house  cools  off  very  much  and  may  chill  the  birds.  The  cold  air, 
moreover,  not  being  able  to  hold  as  much  moisture  as  the  warm  air, 
the  moisture  may  condense  in  the  house,  making  it  damp.  These  ex- 
tremes in  temperature  and  also  the  consequent  dampness  frequently 
give  rise  to  colds  and  may  develop  into  roup  of  some  form. 

These  extremes  of  temperature  and  the  dampness  may  in  a meas- 
ure be  avoided  by  thoroughly  ventilating  the  house  during  the  day, 
being  careful,  however,  to  avoid  draughts,  and  then  closing  up  the 
house  at  nights.  If  in  addition  to  this  a little  heat  is  used  in  the 
house  at  night  the  result  will  be  still  better.  It  will  not  need  much 
heat,  just  enough  to  prevent  the  house  getting  very  cold,  thus  avoiding 
extremes. 

This  of  course  is  artificial  treatment  but  so  is  the  production  of 
eggs  during  the  . cold  winter  weather.  To  get  the  winter  egg  we  must 
keep  the  fowls  comfortable  and  healthy.  The  easiest  and  safest 
method  to  attain  this  may  be  by  a little  artificial  heat  during  the 
winter.  In  a small  house  a small  stove  is  the  only  practical  method 
of  heating  and  some  form  of  the  hot  blast  stove  in  which  the  draught 
can  be  thoroughly  controlled  and  a small  fire  kept  going  for  several 
hours.  For  a large  poultry  house,  some  form  of  small  water  heater  is 
preferable  as  the  heat  may  be  more  easily  distributed  over  the  build- 
ing and  more  easily  regulated. 

The  central  thoughts  are  (1)  that  to  produce  eggs  in  winter  a 
comfortable  temperature  for  the  fowls  must  be  maintained  and  too 
great  cold  avoided;  (2)  that  a fairly  uniform  temperature  must  be 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


189 


maintained;  (8)  dampness  must  be  avoided.  There  are  probably  other 
ways  than  those  suggested  to  attain  those  objects. 

Feeding  Potiltry 

The  matter  of  feeding  while  important  is  perhaps  not  as  diffi- 
cult to  properly  provide  for  as  the  matter  of  comfort  and  health.  The 
weight  of  experience  seems  to  show  that  a proper  combination  of  hard 
feed,  soft  feed,  green  feed,  meat  scraps  and  grit  give  most  satisfactory 
results. 

In  the  morning  give  a warm  mash,  composed  of  bran  and  shorts 
and  some  ground  grain.  This  should  be  mixed  with  water  and  sea- 
soned slightly  with  salt  and  pepper.  This  mash  may  with  advantage 
be  wet  and  mixed  with  w^arm  skim  milk  instead  of  water.  The  skim 
milk  is  valuable  as  a poultry  food  and  can  in  a measure  take  the  place 
of  meat  scraps  or  other  animal  food.  Do  not  give  a full  feed  of  this 
but  after  it  is  eaten  up  clean,  scatter  some  grain  in  the  litter  on  the 
floor,  for  the  hens  to  scratch  around  and  gather  up.  The  grain  should 
vary  from  wheat  and  oats  to  peas  or  corn,  if  available,  to  give  variety. 
About  the  middle  of  the  afternoon  or  a little  later  give  a feed  of  wheat 
also  scattered  in  the  latter  on  the  floor,  all  that  the  birds  will  eat  up 
before  roosting  time.  This  method  of  feeding  forces  the  fowls  to  keep 
busy  and  gives  them  exercise  which  is  needed  for  healthfulness  when 
confined  in  pens.  Give  cut  bones  and  meat  scraps  three  times  a week. 
In  the  winter  keep  a little  green  feed  available  for  the  fowls  all  the 
time,  a head  of  cabbage  hung  up  in  the  pen  and  at  other  times  a man- 
gle or  sugar  beet  and  again  a little  lucern  or  clover  leaves  will  add 
variety.  In  the  summer  if  the  runs  are  large,  part  of  them  may  be 
seeded  to  clover  or  alfalfa,  or  a little  rye  may  be  sown  as  a variety. 

Fowls  need  grit  to  grind  their  food.  Having  no  teeth  the  food 
must  be  ground  in  a special  organ,  the  gizzard.  Again,  grit  is  needed 
to  give  material  for  the  egg  shell. 

Bones  provide  a certain  amount  of  animal  food  and  also  grit  for 
shell  material.  Bones  and  meat  scraps  are  usually  inexpensive,  but 
take  some  work  and  trouble  to  prepare  as  they  have  to  be  ground. 
Their  place  may  be  taken  by  oyster  shells,  ground  bone  and  dried  blood. 
The  first  cost  of  these  is  greater  but  they  require  little  or  no  prepar- 


190 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


ation  before  feeding.  In  the  summer  when  the  fowls  have  the  use  of 
a large  run  and  especially  if  part  of  it  is  cultivated,  less  grit  and  animal 
food  have  to  be  provided,  and  if  later  in  the  season,  for  a month  or  so^ 
they  have  the  run  of  the  fields  they  will  be  able  to  gather  sufficient  of 
both. 

Fresh  water  should  also  be  available  for  the  fowls  at  all  times. 

Cleanliness  and  freedom  from  vermin  are  essential  points  in  poultry 
profits.  The  poultry  house  should  be  whitewashed,  using  freely  slaked 
lime,  at  least  twice  a year,  the  roosts  should  be  frequently  cleaned  off 
and  the  litter  cleaned  out  and  replaced  once  a month  or  often  er.  The 
birds  will  keep  their  bodies  free  of  vermin  if  they  have  ready  access  to 
a dust  bath.  The  roosts  and  nests  should  have  an  occasional  wash  of 
coal-oil  to  keep  those  pests  in  check. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


191 


Poultry  Diseases  Common  in 
Montana. 

By  H.  C.  Gakdinek. 


Introduction 

Diseases  in  poultry  are  in  general  not  effectively  treated  in  the 
diseased  individual,  because  of  the  fact  that  the  trouble  and  time 
necessary  for  treatment  more  than  equal  the  value  of  the  individual 
bird.  On  the  other  hand  an  understanding  of  the  different  diseases 
with  their  predisposing  causes  is  very  essential  in  order  to  avoid  loss 
and  keep  the  flock  free  from  disease. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  fowls  properly  fed,  properly  housed , 
and  intelligently  handled  will  keep  in  a vigorours  healthy  condition. 
In  our  experience  at  the  Station  the  slight  occasional  loss  of  probably 
seven  or  eight  birds  in  four  years  has  been  directly  due  to  some  error 
or  oversight  in  care  or  feeding. 

Diseases  may  be  said  in  general  to  result  from  two  conditions,  one 
in  which  unfavorable  surroundings,  feed,  etc.,  produce  the  conditions 
and  on  the  other  hand  direct  infection  from  some  infectious  or  con- 
tagious disease.  It  is  probably  wise  to  point  out  at  this  time  that  the 
second  source  is  most  active  when  the  fowls  are  in  low  condition  as  a 
result  of  improper  feed  and  care. 

R,oup 

Roup  is  undoubtedly  the  cause  of  more  fatalities  in  the  mature 
flocks  of  the  North-western  states  than  any  other  disease.  It  is  gen- 
erally prevalent  in  Montana  and  in  certain  localities  is  causing  severe 
loss  during  the  winter  months. 

During  the  past  four  years  a thorough  investigation  of  this  disease 
has  been  carried  out  by  the  Bacteriological  department  at  the  Ontario 


192 


MOJSTAJNA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Agricultural  College  and  the  results  of  these  investigations  published 
in  Bulletin  125  of  that  Station.  The  following  notes  on  the  disease 
are  taken  from  ihat  source.  r ' - ■ ' ' 

The  disease  is  infectious  and  due  to  a bacillus  (B.  cacosmus).  It 
is  prevalent  in  fowls  kept  in  filthy,  damp,  draughty  and  poorly  venti- 
lated quarters.  Vigorous  sto2k  in  good  surroundings  prove  quite  re- 
sistant to  the  disease.  Young  fowls  and  those  of  the  more  delicate 
breeds  are  much  predisposed  to  the  disease. 

Symptoms 

The  earliest  symptorns  is  a putrid  catarrh  of  the  nostrils,  followed 
by  a dumpish  condition  during  the  earlier  stages;  and  in  the  less 
severe  forms  of  the  disease  the  fowl  retains  its  appetite.  In  some  in- 
stances the  face  becomes  swollen,  birds  manifest  loss  of  appetite,  be- 
coming emaciated,  and  lie  down  and  die  in  a few  days.  During  the 
latter  stages  of  this  disease,  diarrhoea  wdth  -offensive  yellow  or  green 
discharges  hasten  the  fatal  termination  of  this  disease.  To  quote 
Bulletin  No.  125,  Ontario  Agricultural  College.  “In  the  first  stages 
of  roup  the  birds  often  cough  or  sneeze  and  the  breathing  is  noisy, 
caused  by  the  partial  closing  of  the  air-passages  which  become  blocked 
with  the  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  When  the  air  passages  become 
entirely  closed  by  the  discharged  products,  the  fowl  has  to  open  its 
beak  in  order  to  breath.  Sometimes  a yellowish  cheese-like  mass 
forms  in  the  nostrils,  if  this  mass  is  removed,  an  uneven  bleeding  sur- 
face is  left,  which  form  a new  cheesy  mass  in  from  24  to  48  hours.” 

These  cheesy  masses  sometimes  grow  in  the  eyes  and  in  the  ducts 
between  the  eye  and  nostril  and  sometimes  form  in  small  tumors  under 
the  skin  of  the  face.  “The  secretion  from  the  eyes  is  similiar  to 
that  described  as  coming  from  the  nostrils,  i.e.,  at  first  a clear 
liquid,  then  changing  to  a putrid  grey  and  offensive  discharge.  If 
the  secretion  is  retained  in  the  eye  socket,  it  undergoes  a change, 
becoming  a yellowish,  solid,  cheesy  mass  of  the  same  appearance  as 
the  nasal  tumor.  This  cheesy  mass  either  forces  the  eye  out  of  its 
socket  or  the  inflamation  entirely  destroys  it. 

Combined  with  the  symptoms  of  roup  above  described,  there 
are  often  patches  of  a greyish,  yellow  exudation  firmly  adherent  to 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


193 


the  mouth,  throat,  etc.  These  patches  are  called  false  membranes. 
At  one  or  several  places  in  the  mouth  and  throat,  these  yellowish, 
smooth  or  uneven  membranes  appear,  and  either  remain  small  and 
disappear  after  a few  days,  or  grow  thicker,  spread,  and  become 
firmly  attached  to  the  mucous  membrane,  and  if  they  (the  false  mem- 
branes) are  removed,  an  uneven,  bleeding  surface  is  exposed. 

When  the  throat  is  blocked  by  these  false  membranes,  the  ani- 
mal’s breathing  becomes  abnormal,  and  the  air  passing  through  the 
throat  produces  loud  noises.  Gradually  the  visible  mucous  membrane 
and  the  comb  turn  blue,  and  the  fowl  generally  dies  from  suffocation. 

Treatment 

Care  taken  to  avoid  infection  as  outlined  in  the  causes,  which  pre- 
dispose toward  this  disease,  isolati6n  of  infected  birds  and  disinfection 
of  poultry  houses  and  runs  immediately  adjacent,  with  a 3 per  cent, 
creolin  solution  constitute  the  treatment,  under  average  circumstances. 
If  particularly  desired  to  save  some  valuable  individual,  immersing  the 
head  in  a 1 to  2 per  cent,  permanganate  of  potash  solution  is  a method 
of  treatment  giving  valuable  results.  “Fowls  are  treated  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  The  nostrils  are  pressed  together  between  thumb  and 
forefinger  in  the  direction  of  the  beak  several  times.  Pressure  should 
also  be  applied  between  the  nostrils  and  eyes  in  an  upward  direction. 
This  massage  helps  to  loosen  the  discharge  in  the  nostrils  and  eyes. 
The  bird’s  head  is  then  plunged  in  a potassium  permangnate  solution 
for  20  or  30  seconds,  in  fact  the  head  may  be  kept  under  the  solution 
as  long  as  the  bird  can  tolerate  it.  The  treatment  should  be  given 
twice  a day  until  all  symptoms  have  disappeared.” 

In  conclusion  our  authority  says:  “The  most  effective  preventa- 
tive for  roup  is  to  keep  fowls  in  good,  sanitary  condition  in  dry,  roomy 
yards,  and  dry,  clean,  airy  houses  which  are  free  from  draughts  and 
can  easily  be  cleaned  and  disinfected.” 

CatarrH 

Catarrh  in  poultry  closely  resembles  the  common  “cold  in  the 
head”  of  man.  It  is  accompanied  by  sneezing,  difficult  breathing, 


194 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


watery  discharge  of  nostrils,  in  later  stages  becoming  thick  and 
glutinous. 

The  causes  producing  this  disease  are  lack  of  ventilation  of  houses^ 
draughts,  dampness,  cold  winds,  exposure,  improper  care  and  feeding 
The  prevention  consists  in  the  removal  of  such  conditions,  and  when 
birds  become  affected,  Douglas  mixture  in  the  drinking  water  acts  as  a 
splendid  tonic.  In  addition  the  following  powder  may  be  given  in  the 
food:  Gentian,  1 ounce;  ginger,  1 ounce;  capsicum,  ^ ounce;  iron 
suli^hate,  ^ ounce ; hyposulpate  of  soda,  J ounce;  a teaspoonfull  to  15 
fowls  being  about  the  right  proportion.  Douglas  mixture  is  a splendid 
tonic  to  give  during  the  fall,  winter  and  spring  months  and  we  have 
found  with  its  occasional  use,  sickness  is  a very  rare  occurrence. 

Douglas  mixture  consists  of : Sulphuric  Acid,  1 ounce;  iron  sul- 
l^hate,  3 ounce;  water,  2 gallons;  a teaspoonful  to  a pint  of  drinking 
water  is  sufficient.  We  have  made  it  a practice  to  give  it  once  a week 
in  the  drinking  water,  and  where  there  were  any  signs  of  disease  used 
it  in  drinking  water  daily. 

Gapes 

The  gape  worm  is  causing  loss  among  flocks  in  some  sections  of 
Montana  and  with  the  growth  of  poultry  raising  will  give  serious 
trouble  in  the  future  unless  steps  are  taken  to  suppress  this  parasite 

It  is  a small  reddish  colored  worm  which  infests  the  trachea  (wind- 
pipe) of  young  chickens  and  gets  its  nourishment  by  sucking  blood 
from  the  wall  of  the  windpipe,  where  it  causes  much  irritation,  and 
may  occasion  infiamation  and  suffocation.  The  male  worm  is  about 
l-5th  of  an  inch  in  length  and  the  female  ^ inch.  They  are  usually 
found  attached  in  pairs  to  the  windpipe.  This  infection  occurs  as  a 
result  of  swallowing  embryo  worms  or  eggs  in  drinking  water  or  in  the 
food.  A single  infection  is  however  all  that  is  necessary  as  the  worms 
reproduce  in  the  body  of  their  host.  This  practice  secures  most  of  its 
victims  among  the  smaller  and  weaker  chickens  as  they  most  easily 
become  exhausted  and  suffocated. 

Symptoms 

The  disease  chiefly  affects  chicks  from  1 to  4 weeks  old  and  may 
be  detected  by  the  dumpish  condition  of  the  birds,  by  gaping  frequent- 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


195 


ly  with  the  head  extended.  Later  a cough  is  noticed  and  a wheezing 
sound  accompanies  the  breath,  with  gaping  at  frequent  intervals. 
While  coughing  the  chicks  frequently  dispel  the  parasites,  which  may 
be  detected  in  the  mucous  which  accompanies  the  coughing.  As  the 
disease  advances  the  chicks  become  emaciated  and  week,  wings  hang 
down,  gaping  and  shaking  of  head  are  frequent,  and  at  last  death  from 
suffocation  and  exhaustion  intervenes.  The  stronger  birds  and  those 
infested  with  a few  worms,  only  evidence  a slight  inconvenience  and 
soon  shake  off  the  effects  of  the  disease. 

Treatment 

Individual  cases  may  be  relieved  by  removing  the  worms  from  the 
windpipe  with  the  end  of  a feather  or  a loop  of  horse  hair,  and  excell- 
ent results  may  be  obtained  by  dropping  one  or  two  drops  of  salicylate 
of  soda  in  the  wind  pipe. 

General  treatment  consists  in  the  prevention  of  the  spread  of  in- 
fection. by  isolating  the  affected  birds,  frequent  disinfection  of  their 
yards  with  5 per  cent  solution  of  crube  carbolic  acid,  disinfection  of 
drinking  and  feeding  troughs  with  boib'ng  water,  and  exerting  every 
percaution  to  prevent  the  contaminating  of  their  food  or  drink.  The 
bodies  of  dead  birds  should  be  burned  and  where  possible  healthy  birds 
should  be  changed  to  new  runs  until  the  old  runs  were  thoroughly 
disinfected. 

Lice 

The  large  grey  louse  (Liperiris  caponis),  the  red  mite  (Dermaceys- 
ses  gallinae),  the  bird  flea,  and  the  mite  (Sarcoptes  muteces)  causing 
scaly  legs,  are  the  external  pests  causing  the  bulk  of  the  trouble  aris- 
ing from  the  insect  pests. 

Cleanliness  is  the  starting  point  of  success  in  combatting  these 
pests,  and  houses  and  fixtures  of  simple  construction,  affording  few 
cracks  aid  materially  in  preventing  attacks,  as  they  do  not  afford  the 
protection  necessary  for  the  lice. 

In  keeping  buildings  free  from  lice,  kerosene  must  be  used  freely 
on  roosts,  nest  boxes  and  other  fixtures,  accumulations  of  filth  are  to  be 
avoided  in  every  direction,  and  all  surfaces  on  the  inside  of  the  build- 
ing should  receive  a coating  of  white-wash  containing  carbolic  acid  at 


196 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION, 


least  twice  a year.  The  efficiency  of  this  white-wash  is  greatly  in- 
creased if  applied  with  spray.  Litter  on  the  floor  of  pens  and  in  the 
nest  boxes  shonld  be  renewed  frequently  and  insect  powder  scattered 
in  the  nests.  Kerosene  emulsion  is  valuable  particularly  for  the  flees 
and  mites  and  is  best  applied  with  a spray  pump  and  made  as  follows: 
Kerosene,  1 gallons;  water,  1 gallon,  soap,  pound.  Dissolve  the  soap 
in  the  water  by  boiling,  and  while  hot  turn  in  the  kerosene  and  churn 
briskly  for  5 minutes.  This  solution  is  sufficient  for  about  15  gallons 
of  spray  solution.  Six  ounces  of  crude  carbolic  acid  to  the  gallon  of 
water  (hot)  also  makes  a very  good  solution  to  use  as  a wash  for  roosts, 
nest  boxes  or  floors,  when  cleaning  ont. 

The  largest  number  of  deaths  from  these  pests  occurs  from  the 
large  grey  louse  whieh  attacks  young  chicks.  These  lice  are  found  on 
almost  all  chicks  which  have  been  hatched  under  hens  and  annually 
kill  thousands  of  yonng  chicks.  It  is  a good  practice  to  grease  lightly 
the  back  of  the  head  and  under  the  wings  on  all  young  chicks 
which  are  hen  hatched,  the  lice  conflning  themselves  almost  entirely 
to  those  parts.  Common  lard  series  the  purpose  but  we  have  used 
carbolated  vaseline  and  find  it  preferable. 

The  red  mite  is  combated  more  efPectually  with  kerosene  applied 
to  the  hiding  places,  by  the  use  of  insect  powder  on  the  fowls  and  by 
providing  opportunities  for  dusting 

The  mite  causing  scaly  leg  is  a particularly  annoying  pest  and 
very  prevalent.  It  barrows  under  the  scales  on  the  legs  and  by  its 
irritation  causes  an  exudation  of  which  the  enlarged  scaly  portion  is 
formed.  The  heavier  breeds  of  fowl  are  most  affected  by  this  pest,  the 
Mediterranean  classes  apparently  resisting  its  attack  to  a marked 
extent. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  spread  of  this  disease  it  is  well  to  isolate 
affected  birds  when  treating  them  in  order  to  prevent  the  infection  of 
the  rest  of  the  flock.  In  order  to  reach  the  parasite  it  is  necessary  to 
soak  off  the  scaly  crust  with  warm  soapy  water  and  then  carelully  re- 
move to  avoid  bleeding.  The  legs  should  then  be  moistened  daily 
for  three  or  four  days  with  balsam  of  Peru  or  10  per  cent,  creolin 
ointment. 


BULLETIN  NO.  51. 


nONTANA 

AGRICULTURAL 

EXPERIMENT  STATION 

— OF— 

THE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  OF  HONTANA. 


First  Annual  Report  of  the 
State  Entomologist  of  Montana. 


BOZEriAN,  nONTANA,  DECEflBER,  1903. 


Bozeman,  Mont. 

The  A vant  Courier  Publishing  Co. 
1904. 


1 

ilontana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station^ 

Bozeman,  Montana. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Tooee,  Governor  ’ 'j 

James  Donovan,  Attorney  General  i>Ex-oFFicio 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction  J 

N.  W.  McConnell 

W.  M.  Johnson 

O.  P.  Chisholm 

J.  G.  McKay 

G.  T.  Paul 

N-  B.  Holter 

J.  M.  Evans 

Chas.  R.  Leonard 


....Helena 

....Helena 

...Billings 

Bozeman 

Missoula 

Dillon 

....Helena 
Missoula 
Butte 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 


Walter  S.  Hartman,  President Bozeman 

John  Maxey, Bozeman 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary Bozeman^ 

Joseph  Kountz Bozeman 

E.  B.  Lamme Bozeman 


STATION  STAFF. 


*Samuel  Fortier, 
F.  B.  Linfield,  B. 
F.  W.  Traphagen, 


Ma.  E Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer 

S.  A Vice-Director  and  Agriculturist 

Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S Chemist 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D ] Botanist 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc Entomologist 

R.  W.  Fisher,  B.  S Assistant  Horticulturist 

Edmund  Burke Assistant  Chemist 

W.  J.  Elliott Assistant  Dairyman 

*Absent  on  leave. 


Post  Office,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 


All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be 
addressed  to  the  Director,  Montana  Experiment  Station, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 

Noticee — The  Bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  iree  to 
any  citizen  of  Montana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  (ne 
Station  for  that  purpose. 


THE  COMMON  TOAD 

(See  Article  in  this  Bulletin) 


Montana  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  31. 


DECEMBER,  1903. 


INTRODUCTION. 


This  first  Report  of  the  State  Entomologist  of  Montana  contains 
m accoimt  of  a few  of  the  most  important  insect  pests  of  Montana 
iiid  in  addition,  a fairly  complete,  though  condensed,  manual  of 
nsect  pests.  This  manual  is  intended  to  put  in  easily  accessible 
brm  the  most  important  information  regarding  a large  number  of 
nsects  now  in  the  state  or  liable  to  be  introduced. 

Considering  the  great  importance  of  the  codling  moth,  the 
reader  will  perhaps  expect-  to  find  an  account  of  it  in  this  report. 
.However,  such  an  account  is  omitted  for  two  reasons,  first,  a report 
iDii  this  pest  was  issued  from  the  Experiment  Station  a few  months 
ago,  copies  of  which  are  still  available  for  distribution,  and,  second, 
■it  is  intended  to  conduct  further  investigations  on  this  pest  during 
the  coming  glimmer  (1904)  and  we  shall  desire  to  publish  those 
results  one  year  from  now.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  codling 
moth  will  for  years  to  come  be  the  most  important  insect  pest  with 
which  Montana  apple  growers  will  have  to  contend,  it  is  our  inten- 
don to  make  the  next  report  upon  the  subject  the  most  complete 
and  practical  that  has  yet  been  issued  from  this  Station. 

In  view  of  the  great  economic  importance  of  grasshoppers 
and  because  of  the  unusual  demand  for  information  concerning  them, 
we  have  given  them  prominence  in  this  report. 

We  renew  our  statement  of  willingness  to  answer  inquiry  re- 
garding insect  pests.  Such  requests  for  information  should  always 
be  accompanied  by  specimens  of  the  insects  that  are  doing  the 
damage  and  a statement  of  the  facts  necessary  for  our  information 
in  making  recommendations. 

Every  vegetable  product  of  the  soil  is  subject  to  the  attack  in 
insect  life  and  every  crop  that  is  grown  by  men  is  more  or  less  in- 


200 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


jured  by  insect  pests.  These  injuries  may  be  so  conspicuous  as  toj 
force  themselves  upon  our  notice  or  they  may  be  so  hidden  and  in-i 
sidious  as  to  escape  detection  except  by  th^  most  observant.  The| 
farmer  may  suffer  heavy  financial  loss,  or  because  of  the  higher] 
price  which  comes  as  a result  of  a shortness  in  the  crop,  he  mav  bcj 
only  slightly  affected.  In  the  latter  case  the  general  public  become 
the  suffers,  but  in  all  cases,  losses  through  depredations  of  insect^ 
come  out  of  the  coffers  of  man,  if  not  out  of  his  daily  bread. 

Considering  the  great  agricultural  possibilities  of  this  statej 
together  with  the  fact  that,  incidental  to  commercial  practices,  in-’ 
jurious  insects  new  to  this  region  are  constantly  liable  to  introduc-! 
tion,  it  is  very  important  that  every  possible  means  be  imployed  td 
prevent  the  introduction  and  spread  of  pests  of  all  horticultural  and 
agricultural  plants. 

All  rational  means  of  defense  against  injuries  from  animals  of 
this  class  are  based  on  a more  or  less  intimate  knowledge  of  the  life 
history  and  habits  of  the  insects.  It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that  as 
a defensive  measure  the  acquiring  of  a knowledge  of  life  histories  of 
the  insect  destroyers  of  our  crops  is  of  great  practical  value  and 
must  always  precede  quarantine  and  medical  work. 

Again,  in  order  that  investigations  may  be  safeguarded  against] 
danger  of  becoming  narrow  and  losing  their  practical  setting,  it  is 
obviously  necessary  that  they  be  conducted  not  only  in  the  entomolo- 
gist’s office  or  in  one  locality,  but  in  the  field  and  throughout  the: 
state. 

Realizing  the  truth  of  these  statements  the  Entomological  De- 
partment of  the  Experiment  Station  is  centralizing  its  efforts  on  the 
accumulation  of  information  regarding  species  of  insects  that  arei 
now  or  may  become  injurious  and,  obedient  to  the  Act  of  the  Eighth 
Legislative  Assembly,  whereby  the  office  of  State  Entomologist  was' 
created,  is  making  its  observations  and  conducting  its  experimentsi 
in  all  parts  of  the  state. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


201 


THE  BUD  nOTH. 


Tmetocera  ocellana  Schrif. 

The  bud  moth  was  first  discovered  in  this  country  in  1841  in 
Idassachusetts  and  was  at  that  time  doing  considerable  damage.  In 
869  it  was  pronounced  the  most  injurious  enemy  of  the  apple 
jree,  next  to  the  canker-worm,  in  the  state  of  Massachusetts. 
Since  that  time  it  has  been  spreading  westward  and  has  at  times 
»een  very  destructive,  notably  in  1891  throughout  Massachusetts, 
slew  York  and  Canada  and  again  in  Michigan  in  1892.  It  now 
(ccurs  throughout  Northern  United  States  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  ocean  but  is  much  more  thoroughly  distributed  in  the  east 
han  in  the  west.  It  has  been  found  as  far  south  as  Washington, 
D.  C. 

For  fully  fifty  years  previous  to  the  time  the  insect  was  first  de- 
ected  in  Massachusetts  it  was  a well  known  and  destructive  species 
11  Europe.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  was  introduced  into 
America  from  Europe  on  young  trees,  intended  for  planting. 

OCCURRENCE  IN  MONTANA. 

While  engaged  in  certain  investigations  concerning  the  codling 
noth  in  Missoula  in  the  spring  of  1902  the  writer’s  attention  was 
•ailed  to  trees  in  the  home  orchards  on  Front  street,  Missoula,  the 
oliage  of  which  showed  distinct  signs  of  injury  by  insects.  On 
Examination  it  was  found  that  the  injury  was  caused  by  the  bud 
noth.  The  vernal  form  of  the  larva  was  doing  rather  serious 
lamage  on  many  trees.  The  buds,  both  leaf  and  flower,  were  severe- 
y injured  and  a large  proportion  of  the  expanding  clusters  of  leaves 
vere  tied  together,  each  containing  one  of  more  nearly  full-grown 
arvae  which  were  feeding  voraciously.  Beside  occurring  through- 
mt  Missoula  and  in  the  orchards  just  outside  of  the  city,  the  insect 
s also  gaining  a foothold  for  a considerable  distance  up  the  valley 
)f  the  Bitter  Root  river. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  PEST. 

To  just  what  extent  this  insect  will  be  destructive  in  Montana’s 
flimate,  if  it  becomes  generally  distributed,  cannot  be  foretold.  Ex- 


202 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


perience  of  other  localities  has  distinctly  shown  that  its  injuries  willl 
be  more  severe  some  years  than  others.  For  the  present,  at  least. 
Montana  fruitgrowers  should  look  upon  it  as  a pest  of  first-class) 
importance.  They  should  inform  themselves  concerning  the! 
habits  and  appearance  of  the  insect  in  all  its  stages  and  should! 
be  on  the  lookout  for  it  in  the  orchard. 

Spraying  does  not  appear  to  be  effective  in  killing  the  larvae! 
Should  the  moth  be  admitted  to  the  nurseries  of  the  state  it  would, 
be  very  unfortunate  not  only  for  the  nursery  men  but  also  for  the; 
persons  who  purchase  trees  from  them. 

NATURAL  HISTORY  AND  HABITS. 

The  larva  or  so-called  worm  spends  the  winter  in  a temporary 
cocoon  or  hibernaculum  on  the  trees.  These  hibernacula  are  re- 
markable objects  in  that  they  so  closely  resemble  the  bark  and  the' 
felty  surface  of  the  young  twigs  as  to  be  very  difficult  of  detection 
even  by  a trained  eye.  They  are  closely  secreted  in  crevices  around 
the  buds  or  in  the  depressed  scars  that  mark  the  spots  where  leaves 
were  attached.  They  are  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  across  and 
though  made  principally  of  the  silken  secretion  that  is  produced  from 
the  silk  organs  of  the  mouth  of  the  caterpillar,  they  contain  enough 
of  the  surface  parts  of  the  surroundii^g  bark  to  make  them  very  in- 
conspicuous. 

Besides  occurring  on  the  twigs  as  has  been  described  by  various! 
authors,  the  writer  has  found  them  also  under  the  scales  of  bark  in 
association  with  the  hibernating  larvae  of  the  codling  moth. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year  at  about  the  time  the  buds  are  swelling, i 
the  larvae,  which  are  dark  brown  with  black  heads,  emerge  from 
their  winter  quarters  and  crawl  to  the  buds.  Observation  is  lacking 
in  Montana  as  to  the  precise  time,  compared  to  the  opening  of  the 
buds,  that  they  arrive.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  in  this  respect  the 
habits  would  not  vary  much  between  here  and  other  climates,  for 
Ihe  same  conditions  of  weather  revive  both  insect  and  plant 
life.  Without  much  doubt,  while  a few  larvae  arrive  early  enough 
to  make  it  necessary  for  them  to  bore  into  unexpanded  buds  in  order 
to  get  food,  the  majority  of  them  reach  the  buds  after  they  have 
begun  to  open.  In  both  cases,  alike,  the  larvae,  which  at  this  time 


MONTANA  EXI^ERIMENT  STATION. 


203 


ar€  less  than  a quarter  oi  an  inch  in  length,  go  at  once  to  the  tender, 
inner  part  of  the  bud,  where  they  teed  on  the  tender  parts  and  do 
great  injury,  often  destroying  the  terminal  growing  portion  of  the 
twig.  If  the  bud  be  a fruit  bud  it  likewise  is  destroyed,  thereby 
preventing  the  possibility  of  the  production  of  fruit. 

The  destruction  of  the  terminal  bud  prevents  the  further  elonga- 
tion of  the  twig  and  at  the  same  time  causes  some  lateral  bud  to 
grow  into  a principal  stem.  While  in  some  cases  such  an  unatural 
growth  is  not  a disadvantage,  in  many  cases  the  result  is  a very 
undesirable  shape  of  tree.  This  is  particularly  true  of  young  trees 
in  the  nursery  row. 

The  larva  soon  makes  use  of  one  of  the  more  advanced  leaves 
in  the  construction  of  a tubular  retreat,  which  constitutes  its  home 
and  from  which  it  emerges  from  time  to  time  to  feed.  In  feeding, 
it  draws  in  other  leaves  and  fastens  them  together  into  a sort  of 
nest  which  is  very  characteristic  of  the  species.  Some  of  the 
leaves  become  detached,  but  being  bound  to  the  other  leaves  fail  to 
drop  to  the  ground,  thereby  making  the  nest  all  the  more  conspicu- 
ous, because  of  the  brown  leaves  among  the  green.  A badly  infest- 
ed tree  therefore  has  a decidedly  unnatural  appearance. 

The  larvae  continue  to  feed  in  these  nests  until  they  reach  full 
growth,  when  they  construct  cocoons  in  which  the  remarkable 
change  from  the  larva  to  the  pupa  and  from  the  pupa  to  the  moth 
is  to  take  place.  The  full  grown  larva  is  a half  inch  in  length,  nearly 
naked  and  of  a brown  color  with  glossy  black  head  and  shield  just 
behind  the  head.  See  plate  I,  (figure  7). 

The  cocoon  is  constructed,  in  many  cases,  in  the  tubular  re- 
treat occupied  by  the  larva.  The  walls  are  thickened  and  the  ends 
closed  up,  thereby  preventing  the  entrance  of  parasites,  while  the 
moth  lies  in  the  defenseless  pupa  stage.  Other  cocoons  are  made 
at  any  convenient  place.  Sometimes  they  occur  in  a fold  of  an 
otherwise  uninjured  leaf. 

In  due  time,  01  about  two  weeks  from  the  time  the  larva 
changed  to  a pupa,  the  moth  appears.  The  pupa  works  its  way  out 
of  the  end  of  the  cocoon,  aided  by  the  hook  on  its  back,  and  the 
anterior  end  splits,  thus  setting  free  the  moth,  which  crawls  out, 
expands  and  dries  its  wings  and  flies  away.  In  Missoula  the  moths 


204 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


appear  from  about  the  first  to  the  twenty-fifth  of  July. 

The  moths  are  most  active  during  the  night,  remaining  quiet 
during  the  day  on  the  bark  of  the  tree,  which  they  closely  mimic. 
They  are  also  found  to  some  extent  during  the  day  in  the  foliage 
The  cage  erected  in  Missoula  in  the  spring  of  1902  for 
the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  study  of  the  habits  of  the 
codling  moth,  has  afforded  us  also  an  opportunity  for  the  close  study 
of  the  bud  moth.  The  bud  moth  was  very  abundant  in  this  cage  in 
1903  and  destroyed  practically  all  the  fruit  buds,  interfering  seriously 
with  our  investigations  of  the  codling  moth.  When  disturbed  or 
frightened  the  moths  often  flew  directly  away  from  the  tree  and  com- 
ing in  contact  with  wire  netting  clung  quietly  to  it  for  a few  mo- 
ments. In  a few  moments,  however,  they  flew  back  to  the  tree.  It 
is  plain  that  they  did  not  feel  safe  on  the  netting  and  they  would  not 
have  been  safe  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  no  birds  could  reach  them 
on  the  inside  of  the  cage.  In  flying  at  such  times  the  moth  pursues 
an  irregular  zig-zag  course  and  comes  immediately  at  rest  on  light- 
ing. 

It  is  worthy  of  special  notice  that  there  is  a close  resemblance  be- 
tween adults  of  the  bud  moth  and  of  the  codling  moth.  An  experi- 
enced person  need  have  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing  between  the 
two  if  he  has  before  him  fresh  specimens,  but  when  the  scales  of  the 
wings  are  rubbed  off  as  they  often  are  in  specimens  captured  in  the 
orchard,  separating  the  two  at  sight  is  not  so  easily  done.  When 
once  placed  on  his  guard,  however,  a trained  observer  is  not  liable 
to  make  a mistake.  On  the  other  hand  there  are  many  less  important 
small  moths  in  the  orchard  which  the  untrained  observer  or  the  per- 
son who  has  paid  little  attention  to  insect  life  may  mistake  for  both 
of  these  orchard  pests. 

In  a few  days  after  emerging  the  moth  begins  to  deposit  eggs.  We 
had  no  difficulty  in  finding  quantities  of  them  in  the  cage  at  Missoula 
and  they  were  invariably  on  the  smooth  upper  surface  of  the  leaves. 
Other  writers  have  stated  that  the  eggs  are  laid  singly  or  in  clusters 
and  on  page  61  of  Prof.  Slingerland’s  bulletin  on  this  insect  (No.  107, 
Corn.  Univ.  Agric.  Ii'xp.  Sta.  1896),  is  given  a figure  of  a group  of 
these  eggs  numbering  about  six,  but  our  observation  shows  plainly 
that  in  Montana  the  eggs  are  laid  singly.  We  have  never  found 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


205 


more  than  two  together.  A single  egg  is  shown  at  plate  I (figure  i). 
They  are  usually  oval  in  outline,  some  being  circular  or  nearly  so, 
and  they  measure  slightly  over  one  mm.  in  length,  including  the  flat 
outer  rim  by  which  they  are  attached  to  the  leaf.  They  are  trans- 
lucent and  almost  colorless  at  first,  but  as  the  embryo  develops  the 
black  head  and  thoracic  shield  of  the  larva  show  through  and  the 
outline  of  the  curled  larva  may  be  distinctly  seen.  The  egg  shell 
reflects  the  prismatic  colors,  both  before  and  after  the  larva  emerges. 

We  have  above  called  attention  to  the  close  resemblance  between 
the  adult  of  the  bud  moth  and  that  of  the  codling  moth.  It  is  even 
more  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  eggs  of  the  two  species.  In 
size,  shape  and  general  appearance,  they  are  very  similar.  They  are 
laid  in  precisely  the  same  position  on  the  foliage  and  are  deposited  at 
the  same  time.  They  both  reflect  light  and  show  irridescence  alike, 
and  both  are  translucent.  I know  of  no  way  to  distinguish  between 
the  two  except  by  the  difference  in  the  character  of  the  surface  of 
the  shell  of  the  egg. 

The  hatching  of  the  egg  takes  place  in  from  six  to  ten  days  after 
being  laid,  and,  issuing  from  the  egg,  the  larva  makes  a hole 
through  the  edge  of  the  central  portion  and  crawls  forth.  This  cater- 
pillar is  greenish  in  color,  very  small  and  delicate  and  it  at  once  sets 
about  making  a place  of  retreat  and  protection.  Passing  to  the  un- 
der side  of  the  leaf  it  constructs  a very  small  silken  tube  near  the 
mid  rib  and  usually  towards  the  base  of  the  leaf.  The  larva  feeds 
from  the  epidermis  and  middle  layers  of  cells  leaving  the  opposite 
epidermis  unbroken.  The  castings  of  the  larva  are  built  into  the 
tube  giving  it  a black  color.  The  portion  of  the  leaf  from  which  the 
larva  feeds  is  covered  with  silken  threads  laid  down  by  the  larva 
and  whenever  possible  a near-by  leaf  is  drawn  up  and  fastened  to 
the  first  leaf  by  the  silken  threads.  Thus  one  often  finds  two  leaves 
stuck  together,  and, in  pulling  them  apart,  finds  the  little  black  tube 
of  this  insect.  The  larva  will  not  be  seen  unless  forced  to  crawl  out. 

In  selecting  a place  in  which  to  construct  a home  the  larva 
searches  for  two  leaves  that  are  near  enough  together  to  be  easily 
brought  in  contact. 

In  the  manner  here  indicated  the  larvae  continues  to  feed  until  some 
time  in  September,  when,  apparently  prompted  by  instinct  they 


206 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


crawl  to  the  twigs,  spin  the  temporary  cocoons  whicli,  they  occupy 
during  the  winter  months,  and  from  which  they  issue  in  the  spring 
and  pass  to  the  buds  as  previously  stated. 

THE  KINDS  OF  TREES  THE  BUD  MOTH  ATTACKS. 

While  this  insejct  is  best  known  as  an  apple  pest,  it  feeds  also  on 
pear,  plum,  quince,  peach  and  cherry  trees  and  on  blackberry  bushes, 
in  all  cases  feeding  on  the  buds. 

MEANS  OF  DISTRIBUTION. 

The  manner  of  hibernation  of  the  insect  makes  it  very  easy  for  it 
to  be  distributed  on  nursery  stock,  and  this  is  doubtless  the  way  in 
which  it  has  become  so  widely  distributed.  It  may  be  readily  dis- 
tributed on  scions. 

The  moths  are  capable  of  flying  and  doubtless  go  from  tree  to  tree 
and  from  orchard  to  orchard  but  they  can  only  spread  slowly  in  this 
way. 

NATURAL  ENEMIES. 

It  is  very  probable  that  many  of  these  insects  fall  a prey  to  the 
birds  that  frequent  the  orchards.  In  fact  it  is  reported  that  birds 
sometimes  eat  the  moths.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  Ore-- 
gon  chickadee,  that  is  so  common  in  the  orchards  searching  on  the 
trees^for  food,  does  much  good  in  destroying  these  insects.  Various 
other  birds  probably  eat  them  in  Montana. 

It  was  very  noticeable  that  the  tree  which  had  been  inclosed  in  the 
cage  in  Missoula  for  one  year  was  much  more  seriously  affected  by 
this  insect.  Birds  had,  of  course,  been  excluded. 

A number  of  parasites  have  been  taken  from  the  bud  moth  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Europe  but  just  how  much  good  they  do  can- 
not be  stated.  I have  reared  an  undetermined  species  from  speci- 
mens of  this  pest  brought  from  Missoula  to  Bozeman  for  study. 

METHOD  OF  PREVENTING  ITS  RAVAGES. 

In  the  East  this  insect  is  said  to  be  a very  difficult  one  to  control. 
Just  why  this  is  so  has  never  been  fully  e?:plained,  and  as  yet  we 
lack  a sufficient  knowledge  of  the  habits  to  enable  us 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


207 


to  state  definitely  the  cause  of  the  failure  of  remedial  treatment,  but 
there  is  some  reason  to  believe  that  in  Montana  a large  majority  of 
the  larvae  arrive  after  the  buds  have  opened  enough  to  allow 
them  to  crawl  into  the  narrow  cracks  between  the  expanding  leaves. 
It  is  instinctive  with  these  larvae  to  get  out  of  sight  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible, and  once  inside  the  opening  buds  with  a few  leaves  tied  to- 
gether into  a nest,  sufficient  food  for  the  remainder  of  the  larval  life 
is  protected  in  such  a way  as  to  make  it  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
get  the  poison  in  contact  with  the  food. 

If  on  arriving  at  the  bud,  the  larvae  finds  its  sufficiently  open  to 
allow  it  to  crawl  in,  in  all  probability  very  little  food  is  taken  from 
the  surface  parts.  If,  on  the  other  hand  the  bud  is  still  closed,  more 
or  less  of  the  surface  is  eaten  in  boring  to  the  center.  If  the  part  of 
the  bud  through  which  the  larvai  eats  its  way  is  coated  with  a pois- 
on, a fatal  dose  may  be  taken  but  at  this  season  of  the  year  the  buds 
are  very  rapidly  swelling  and  a bud  that  is  well  coated  one  day  may 
two  days  later,  on  account  of  the  expansion  of  the  surface  parts,  be 
so  insufficiently  covered  as  to  be  harmless  to  the  larva  that  enters  it. 
As  is  well  known  to  all  fruit  growers,  some  trees  expand  their  leaves 
earlier  than  others,  and  again  peach  buds  open  before  most  apple 
buds. 

Again,  after  the  bud  may  be  said  to  be  fully  expanded  the  inner 
terminal  growing  shoot  continues  to  put  forth  new  leaves.  These 
leaves  are  the  ones  that  form  the  food  of  the  larvae  and  they  expand 
within  the  nest  where  they  are  not  easily  reached  with  a spray. 

Considering  how  admirably  the  insect  is  protected  by  nature  and 
its  own  habits,  its  control  when  in  its  spring  nest  is  at  least  un- 
certain. 

The  problem  is  less  perplexing  when  only  nursery  trees  or  trees 
in  a young  orchard  are  concerned.  Under  such  circumstances  hand 
picking  of  the  nests  should  be  very  satisfactory.  In  picking  the 
nests,  however,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  allow  the  larvae  to  es- 
cape to  the  ground  for  they  would  probably  return  to  the  trees.  A 
pail,  not  a basket,  shold  be  used  in  gathering  the  nests,  which  should 
be  burned  or  thoroughly  saturated  with  kereosene  oil.  If  left  in  a 
pile  at  the  side  of  the  field,  the  chances  are  that  some  of  the  larvae 
would  complete  their  development  to  the  moth  and  fly  to  the  trees. 


208 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


There  seems  to  be  some  promise  of  good  results  from  the  use  of 
summer  sprrys  applied  at  the  time  the  eggs  are  hatching.-  As  is 
indicated  cn  a previous  page,  the  very  young  larva  on  hatching  from 
the  egg  passes  to  the  under  side  of  some  leaf  where  it  spins  a delicate 
tube  from  the  end  of  which  it  issues  for  getting  its  food  which  it 
takes  from  the  surface  parts  of  the  leaf.  If  this  part  of  the  leaf  be 
coated  with  a poison,  the  treatment  should  be  successful.  It  would 
be  necessary  to  get  the  coating  on  before  the  larva  spins  its  web  on 
the  surface.  The  spray  should  be  directed  against  the  under  side  of 
the  leaves. 

For  this  purpose  we  recommend  the  use  of  arsenate  of  lead  in  pre- 
ference to  Paris  gieen  on  account  of  the  much  greater  adhesive 
quality  of  the  former  insecticide.  Arsenate  of  lead  sticks  to  the  foli- 
age through  severe  rain  storms  and  when  applied  in  the  spring  may 
be  found  still  adhering  in  the  fall  giving  a whitish  color  to  the  leaves. 
For  this  reason  it  has  a particular  advantage  in  the  treatment  of  the 
newly  hatched  larvae  of  the  bud  moth. 

In  controlling  the  insect  we  recommend  the  following: 

(1) .  Pick  by  hand  and  destroy  the  nests  on  nursery  and  young 

orchard  trees.  ’ * 

(2) .  Spray  thoroughly  with  arsenate  of  lead  in  the  spring  of  the 
year  just  as  the  buds  are  expanding. 

3).  Spray  thoroughly  with  arsenate  of  lead  about  June  15..  Give 
particular  attention  to  coating  the  under  surface  of  the  foliage. 

CONCLUSION. 

This  is  a serious  insect  pest  and  one  that  the  fruit  grower  would 
do  well  to  become  familiar  with  and  suppress  before  it  takes  pos- 
session of  his  orchard. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


209 


THE  OYSTER=SHELL  BARK=LOUSE. 


Lepidosaphes  ulmi  (Linn.) 

This  widely  known  injurious  species  is  the  only  scale  insect  of  im- 
portance to  the  fruitgrower  that,  so  far  as  is  known  to  the  writer,  has 
been  recognized  in  Montana.  It  appears  to  be  generally  distributed 
in  the  state,  particularly  west  of  the  main  divide,  where  in  some 
cases  it  has  proved  to  be  a serious  enemy  to  apple  frees.  One  orchard 
of  800  trees  in  the. Bitter  Root  valley  is  so  badly  infested  as  to  show 
its  sickly  condition  at  a considerable  distance.  Nearly  every  smaller 
limb  and  twig  on  the  greater  number  of  the  trees  is  thickly  incrusted. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  scale  insect,  which  was  known 
jn  Europe  upward  of  a century  ago,  was  imported  into  Anierica  on 
nursery  stock  by  the  early  settlers  and  later  transferred  to  Mon- 
tana from  other  parts  of  the  United  States  in  the  same  way. 

FOOD  PLANTS. 

The  oyster-shell  bark-louse  has  been  recorded  on  a large  number 
of  food  plants,  the  total  number  for  America  being  about  forty.  The 
list  included,  beside  apple  and  pear,  various  other  fruits  and  prac- 
tically all  the  more  important  shade  trees  of  northern  United  States. 

Dr.  Howard  has  suggested  that  eventually  two  species  instead  of 
one  may  be  found  in  the  series  in  the  list  of  food  plants. 

LIFE  HISTORY  AND  HABITS. 

If  during  the  winter  one  of  the  female  scales  be  turned  over  it  will 
be  found  to  contain  a mass  of  very  minute  yellowish-white 
eggs,  and  in  the  pointed  anterior  end  of  the  scale,  the  shrivelled 
body  of  the  female.  Dr.  Howard  has  found  the  eggs  under  each 
scale  to  vary  in  number  from  42  to  86. 

In  the  New  England  states  these  eggs  hatch  about  the  first  of 
June,  varying  in  different  years  according  to  the  forwardness  of  the 
season..  We  have  had  but  little  opportunity  to  make  observation  on 
this  point  in  Montana,  and  have  but  one  record.  On  June  5,  1903, 
none  of  the  eggs  had  hatched  at  Lo  Lo.  -The  young  (Fig  3,  c.)  are 
able  to  walk  immediately  after  hatching,  and  working  their  way  out 


210 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


from  under  the  protecting  cover  of  the  parent  scale  they  crawl  to 
other  parts  of  the  twigs,  principally  to  the  young  shoots  which  at 
that  time  of  year  are  tender  and  succulent.  In  rare  cases  they  settle 
on  the  fruit  of  the  apple  and  pear.  c 

After  settling  down  and  inserting  into  the  bark  the  long  thread- 
like hairs  through  which  the  juices  of  the  plant  are  extracted,  the 


Figure  2. — Oyster-shell  Bark-louse-  a,  female  scale  from  below 
showing  eggs;  b,  same  from  above,  greatly  enlarged;  c,  female 
scales;  d,  male  scales  enlarged;  e,  male  scales  natural  size. 
(Howard,  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Deyt.  of  Agr.) 


insect  goes  through  remarkable  changes.  From  pores  in  the  back, 
principally  at  the  hinder  part  of  the  body,  a glandular  secretion  ap- 
pears, and  from  it  the  scale  is  formed.  The  female  molts  or  casts  the 
outer  skin  twice  and  the  male  once.  The  cast  skins  are  incorporated 
in  the  scales  (See  Fig.  2,  b).  After  molting  both  sexes  continue  to 
grow,  the  female  attaining  a much  larger  size  than  the  male;  com- 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


211 


pare  b.  and  d.  of  Fig.  2 The  scales  indicate  approximately  the  com- 
parative sizes  of  the  insects  under  them.  The  mature  male  and  fe- 
male are  very  dissimilar  in  appearance.  The  male  has  long  anter- 
nae,  a pair  of  eyes,  three  pairs  of  legs,  one  pair  of  wings  and  at  the 
end  of  the  abdomen  a long  sharp-pointed  organ.  The  female  has  no 
antennae,  eyes,  legs  or  wings,  these  parts  all  being  lost  in  the  first 
molt.  When  mature,  the  body  of  the  female  reaches  to  the  posterior 
end  of  the  scale,  but  as  tlr&reggs  are  laid  the  body  shrinks  and  be- 
oomes  shortened  and  when  the  full  number  of  eggs  has  been  laid  it 
may  be  found  lifeless,  at  the  anterior  end,  the  cavity  under  the  scale 
now  being  occupied  with  the  eggs.  As  previously  stated,  in  this  con- 
dition the  insect  passes  the  winter.  The  adult  male  and  female  are* 
shown  at  Fig.  3. 

In  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  there  is  only  one  annual 
generation  but  in  the  South  there  are  two. 

REMEDY. 

Insects  of  this  character,  covered  as  they  are  by  a scale  that  fits 
closely  to  the  bark,  are  not  easily  killed  by  contact  insecticides.  The 
most  vulnerable  point  in  their  life  appears  to  be  just  at  the  time  the 
young  are  hatching  and  settling  on  the  bark.  We  have  previously 
recommended  the  use  of  kerosene  emulsion  as  a remedy  for  this 
insect,  in  the  strength  of  one  part  to  nine  of  water.  Various  reports 
to  the  effect  that  this  treatment  has  not  been  effective  in  Montana, 
have  come  to  this  office,  but  inquiry  has  shown  that 
in  all  these  cases  there  is  no  certainty  that  the  ap- 
plication was  made  at  the  correct  time.  We  can  do  no  better 
than  to  repeat  our  previous  recommendation  to  watch  closely  for  the 
hatching  of  the  eggs  about  the  first  of  June  and  spray  with  with 
kerosene  to  the  strength  above  mentioned,  after  the  young  have 
hatched.  If,  after  a few  days,  more  living  lice  are  found  the  treat- 
ment may  be  repeated. 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  LIME,  SULPHUR  AND  SALT  WASH 

AS  A REMEDY. 

We  take  this  opportunity  to  present  the  results  of  experiments 
conducted  at  Lo  Lo,  Montana,  in  the  early  spring  of  1903,  for  the 


212 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


puropse  of  determining  the  value  or  non-value  of  the  lime,  sulphur 
and  salt  wash,  and  certain  modifications  of  the  wash,  as  a means  of 
destroying  the  eggs  of  this  scale  insect. 

The  experiments  were  conducted  in  the  apple  orchard  of  Mr. 
Delaney.  At  the  time,  pear  buds  were  swollen  almost  to  the  point 
of  expanding  their  first  leaves  and  apple  buds  were  slightly  swollen. 


j 


Figure  3.  Oyster-shell  Bark-louse;  a.  adult  male;  b,  foot  of 
same;  c,  young  larve;  d,  antenna  of  same;  e,  adult  female  taken 
from  scale;  a,  c,  e,  greatly  enlarged;  b.  d,  more  enlarged. 
(Howard,  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


The  trees  are  large  and  were  badly  infested  with  this  insect.  Seven 
to  nine  trees  were  used  in  each  experiment,  each  lot  being  sprayed 
with  a different  mixture,  but  the  total  number  of  trees  used  consti- 
tuted but  a small  proportion  of  the  orchard.  The  spraying  was  done 
April  21  and  22. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


213 


One  lot  was  sprayed  with  the  wash  as  follows: 


Lime  . . 
Sulphur 
Salt  . . . 
Water  . 


I pound. 
. I pound. 
. I pound. 
4 gallons. 


Lot  two  was  sprayed  with  the  following : 

Lime  i pound. 

Sulphur I pound. 

Water  4 gallons. 


Lot  three  was  sprayed  with : 

Lime pound 

Sulphur I pound 

Water  4 gallons. 


In  the  fourth  lot  lime  only  was  used  as  follows : 

Lime  i pound. 

Water  8 gallons. 

Two  subsequent  visits  were  made  to  the  orchard,  one  before  the 
hatching  of  the  eggs  and  one  after,  but  I could  not  find  the  least 
evidence  of  any  good  having  been  accomplished  by  any  of  the  four 
treatments. 


214 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


APPLE  LEAF=APHIS. 


Aphis  pomi  DeG. 

'A  few  years  ago  practically  all  the  accounts  of  plant  lice  on  the 
foliage  of  apple  trees  were  written  of  one  species,  which  was  known 
under  the  scientific  name,  Aphis  mali  Linn.  Dr.  John  B.  Smith,  of 
Rutgers  College,  New  Jersey,  and  others,  had  noticed  that  accounts 
of  the  insects  in  other  localities  did  not  agree  with  their  own  observ- 
ations, but  not  until  Prof.  E.  Dwight  Sanderson*  published  the  results 
of  his  investigations,  v/as  it  made  clear  that,  instead  of  having  one 
apple  aphis  in  the  United  States  we  have  several. 

We  have  at  least  two  species  in  Montana,  but  one  of  these,  the 
Apple  Leaf-aphis,  is  far  more  common  than  the  other  and  is  respon- 
sible for  practically  all  the  injuries. 

CHARACTER  AND  EXTENT  OF  INJURY. 

No  fruit  pest  has  been  more  frequently  inquired  about  in  the  let- 
ters to  this  Station  than  has  this  aphis.  These  letters,  as  well  as  the 
writer’s  experience  in  various  parts  of  the  state,  show  conclusively 
that  the  species  are  very  troublesome  and  at  times  a very  injurious 
pest.  It  is  universally  felt  that  as  a rule  young  trees  are  much  more 
susceptible  to  attack  than  trees  in  bearing.  The  writer’s  field  notes  re- 
cord one  notable  exception  to  this  in  the  case  of  a large  orchard  in 
Flathead  county,  composed  of  trees  which  had  been  in  bearing  for 
many  years,  which  were  so  badly  infested  as  to  have  the  foliage  with- 
ered, and  the  fruit  undersized  and  poor. 

A prominent  characteristic  of  the  work  of  the  aphis  is  the  curling 
of  the  leaves.  In  this  respect  there  is  a marked  difference  between 
the  effect  on  the  tree  of  the  work  of  this  species  and  of  “Fitche’s 
apple  aphis,”  which,  on  the  whole,  is  more  common  in  the  United 
States.  In  curling,  the  deformed  leave  usually  takes  a characteristic 
shape.  The  surface  becomes  irregularly  raised  and  the  whole  leaf  curls 
bringing  the  under  surface  inside  and  the  upper  surface  exposed.  The 
tip  of  the  leaf  rests  upon  its  base,  not  in  the  middle,  but  to  one  side 

♦Thirteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Deleware  College  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


215 


Figure  4.  Wingless  viviparous  female  on  left;  oviparous  female  on  right — 
greatly  enlarged.  (Sanderson,  13  Ann.  Kept.  N.  J.  Exp.  Station). 


Dr  the  other  of  the  mid-rib.  The  lice  live  inside  of  the  curled  leaf,  a 
fact  which  has  much  to  do  with  the  difficulty  in  controlling  them 
with  insecticidal  spiays. 

There  is  some  reason  to  believe  that  the  presence  of  the  lice  in 
I arge  numbers  on  a tree  has  the  effect  of  keeping  the  sap  in  the 
f:ree  late  in  the  fall,  thereby  making  it  more  liable  to  injury  by 
j:old  weather.  It  -’s  certain  that  badly  infested  leaves  on  the  ends  of 
;;he  new  growth  often  fail  to  mature  and  remain  on  the  tree  through- 
DUt  the  winter.  This  is  often  noticeable  on  trees  in  the  nursery  row. 

The  general  injurious  effect  of  the  lice  is  to  check  the  normal 
growth  of  the  tree.  This  office  has  many  records  of  this  effect  in  a 
serious  degree. 

We  have  never  found  this  louse  occurring  in  great  numbers  on  the 
rioting  buds  in  the  spring  as  is  often  the  case  with  ‘‘Fitche’s  apple 
iphis.”  As  a rule,  only  a few  scattering  lice  are  to  be  found 
arly  in  the  season,  and  our  exeprience  has  shown  that  frequently 
mly  here  and  there  a tree  will  be  found  infested  in  the  spring  of  the 
,'ear,  though  as  the  season  progresses  the  lice  will  gradually  spread 
hroughout  the  orchard. 


216 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


DESCRIPTION  AND  LIFE  HISTORY. 

Like  many  other  plant  lice,  the  apple-aphis  passes  the  winter  in  . 
the  egg  state.  In  the  spring  the  eggs  hatch,  producing  very  minute, ' 
dark  greenish  lice  which  may  be  found  crawling  about  over  the  sur- ; 
face  of  the  bark  or  closely  nestled  on  the  young  buds  and  expanding 
leaves. 

The  spring  of  1902  was  looked  upon  as  being  very  cold  and  back-j 
ward  in  the  Gallatin  valley,  and  the  writer  was  much  surprised  in  ■ 
going  into  the  Station  orchard  on  April  i6th  to  find  an  abundance  of 
newly  hatched  lice.  The  buds  had  not  started  and  were  no  more 
swollen  than  they  were  the  fall  before.  There  had  been  a few  days  i 
of  hot  weather  which  had  caused  the  lice  to  hatch,  but  had  not  been : 
of  long  enough  duration  to  start  the  buds.  Part  of  the  lice  had  been : 
feeding  and  had  distinctly  increased  in  size.  ! 

On  April  19  a cold  storm  came  and  on  the  20th  there  were  aboutq 
three  inches  of  snow.  For  the  next  few  days  the  writer  was  out  of ; 
town,  but  on  May  i the  trees  were  examined  and  the  lice  were  found  i 
to  have  been  nearly  all  killed.  Only  two  living  ones  could  be  found  1 
and  many  dead  bodies  were  still  attached  to  the  twigs.  Since  that  \ 


Figure  5.  Winged  viviparous  female  greatly  enlarged.  (Sanderson,  13th  Ann.  Kept.  N.  J I 
Exp,  Station. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


217 


time,  we  have  observed  a similar,  though  less  extensive,  early  hatch- 
ing and  killing  of  the  lice. 

If  not  destroyed  by  natural  enemies  or  climatic  conditions,  the 
young  lice  in  due  time  become  mature  and  begin  to  produce  young. 
Dr.  Smith  of  New  Jersey*  found  that  about  fifteen  days  were  requir- 
ed for  the  first  genet  ation  to  reach  maturity  after  hatching.  The  lice 
are  known  as  the  “Stem  mothers,”  (See  Fig.  4,  b).  They  are  wing- 
less and  are  greenish  in  color.  No  males  are  produced  from  the  eggs 
and  the  stem  mothers  are  able  to  produce  young  without  them. 

The  young  of  the  second  generation  (ofispring  of  the  stem  moth- 
ers) are  produced  alive — not  hatched  from  eggs — and  are  able  to 
begin  feeding  almost  immediately.  They  settle  down  near  the  moth- 
er and  one  may  often  find  a stem  mother  with  her  large  family  close 
by  her.  Our  office  notes  show  that  the  stem  mother  gives  birth  to 
young  at  the  rate  of  from  one  to  fourteen  per  day,  and  that  she  con- 
tinues day  after  day  for  fully  eighteen  days,  producing  an  average 


Figure  6,  Male  of  the  oviparous 
generation  greatly  enlarged.  (Sander- 
son 14th  Ann.  Kept.  N.  J.  Exp. 
Station. 


number  of  about  six  or  seven.  Thus  each  stem  mother  produces 
lully  loo  young. 

*Bulletin  143  of  the  N.  J.  Experiment  Station. 


218 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Dr.  Smith  found  that  the  second  generation  matures  in  nine  or  ten,’ 
days  and  that  of  chis  series  about  three-fourths  are  winged;  that  the- 
third  series  matures  in  about  two  weeks,  less  than  one-half  being' 
winged  and  that  thereafter  no  more  winged  forms  appear  but  that.i 
seven  series  of  parthenogenetic  females  in  all  appear  before  the  end... 
of  the  season.  The  8th  and  last  series  is  made  up  of  males  and  females.,') 
Late  in  October,  after  the  mating  of  the  sexes,  the  females  deposit!- 
the  eggs  which  remain  on  the  trees  during  the  winter.  Figure  4,,i 
right  hand  figure,  shows  an  oviparous  female.  Figure  6,  a male  of- 
the  oviparous  generation. 

A part  or  all  of  the  winged  individuals  of  the  early  generations  fly  . 
to  other  trees.  A winged  parthenogenetic  female  is  shown  at  Fig.  5. , 

The  eggs  are  minute,  glossy  black  objects,  oval  in  shape.  Thty^' 
may  be  found  on  any  part  of  the  tree  from  the  base  of  the  trunk  to  the; ' 
tips  of  the  twigs,  and  are  usually  more  abundant  in  the  crevices  of . 
the  bark  and  around  the  buds  than  on  the  exposed,  smooth  surfaces. 

A very  large  proportion  of  the  eggs,  probably  upward  of  90  per, 
cent,  failed  to  hatch  during  the  three  years  that  we  had  the' 
species  under  special  study. 

NATURAL  ENEMIES. 


Of  the  various  natural  enemies  that  feed  upon  the  plant  lousei  ■ 
none  is  of  greater  value  than  the  Fire-marked  Lady-bug  {Hyperas- 
pis  5-signata) . Next  in  importance  are  certain  species  of  syrphujr 
flies.  Besides  these  we  have  observed  a Braconid  parasite,  a smal 
fly  that  has  not  yet  been  named  and  the  “Aphis  Lion.” 

After  two  years  of  close  observation  of  the  babits  of  this  lady 
bug  we  are  prepared  to  say  that  it  is  a very  prominent  factor  in  tlitj* 
prevention  of  the  aphis  from  becoming  exceedingly  abundant  an(| 
destructive.  During  the  latter  part  of  May  and  in  June  the  beetlef 
were  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  Experiment  Station  orchard,  an( 
in  various  other  orchards,  running  rapidly  over  the  limbs  and  twig 
in  search  for  the  young  aphids.  The  number  they  eat  when  in  con 
finements  is  astonishing. 

In  a previous  paragraph  we  have  called  attention  to  the  fact  tha; 
only  a comparatively  small  number  of  stem  mothers  are  to  be  founo : 


1 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


219 


early  in  the  season  and  that  the  large  numbers  to  be  found  later  in 
the  season  is  the  result  of  the  rapid  multiplication.  It.  is  apparent, 


therefore,  that  the  comparatively  small  number  of  lice  that  the  bee- 
tles eat  early  in  the  season  must  have  a great  effect  in  the  abundance 
of  the  lice  later  in  the  season. 

Though  the  larvae  of  this  lady-bug  eat  large  numbers  of  the  lice 
later  in  the  season  when  they  have  become  very  abundant,  we  look 
upon  the  work  that  they  do  as  being  of  much  less  value  than  that  of 
the  adults. 


220 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


The  Surphus  fly  larvae  are  probably  of  greater  usefulness  than  the 
larvae  of  the  lady-bug  since  they  are  usually  more  abundant,  but  like 
the  beetle  larvae,  they  do  not  appear  on  the  scene  until  the  lice  have 
become  abundant  and  are  multiplying  with  such  rapidity  that  it 
would  require  a large  number  of  destroyers  to  dispose  of  the  increase 
alone.  Figure  8 illustrates  a common  species  of  lady-bug  of  the 
East,  while  at  Figure  2,  plate  i,  is  shown  an  adult  of  the  species  here 
discussed.  Figures  3 and  4 of  the  same  plate  show  the  eggs  of  the 
same  species  and  at  Figure  5 is  shown  a full  grown  larva. 


Figure  8,  The  Two  Spotted  Lady  Bug;  a.  larva;  b,  mouth  parts  of  same;  c,  claw  of  same; 
d,  pupa;  e,  adult;  f,  antenna — all  enlarged.  (Marlott  Circular  7,  Sec.  Series,  Division  of  Ento- 
mology U,  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


REMEDIES  FOR  APPLE  LEAF-APHIS. 


In  spraying  for  this  aphis  we  would  emphasize  the  importance  of 
watching  for  the  individual  infested  trees  here  and  there  in  the  orch- 
ard and  treating  them  before  the  lice  spread  to  the  other  trees.  In 
Ofdier  words,  the  spraying  for  the  apple  leaf-aphis  should  be  done  and 
out  of  the  way  early  in  the  season,  for  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
when  vigorously  fought  early  in  the  summer,  though  some  lice  es- 
cape, there  will  be  so  few  left  that  the  natural  enemies  will  be  able 
to  keep  them  from  overrunning  the  orchard. 

The  value  of  prompt  treatment  is  apparent  when  ! we 
^•ealize  the  enormous  power  of  multiplication  with  which 
nature  has  endowed  these  insects.  In  a previous  para- 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


221 


graph  we  have  shown  that  the  stem  mother’s  maxi- 
mum power  of  production  is  upward  of  lOO  young,  and 
is  probable  that  later  generations  can  give  birth  to  a similar  number. 

Acting  on  the  basis  that  all  of  the  young  of  each  generation  come 
to  maturity  and  produce  the  full  number  of  young,  we  find  that  the 
progeny  of  one  stem  mother  during  one  summer  is  something  enor- 
mous. 

1st  generation i aphis. 

2nd  generation loo  aphids. 

3rd  generation 10,000  aphids. 

4th  generation 1,000,000  aphids. 

5th  generation 100,000,000  aphids. 

6th  generation 10,000,000,000  aphids. 

7th  generation  1,000,000,000,000  aphids. 

Thus  starting  with  one  aphis  in  the  spring  we  would  have  in  the 
seventh  generation  one  trillion  aphids,  a number  which  the  human 
mind  cannot  appreciate.  Under  natural  conditions,  however,  the  in- 
sects are  decreased  in  number  from  one  cause  and  another,  all  thro’ 
the  season,  so  that,  while  they  increase  very  rapidly,  they  never  do 
so  to  the  extent  above  indicated.  At  the  same  time,  however,  it  is 
easily  seen  that  the  destruction  of  a large  proportion  of  the  first  and 
second  generations  will  very  markedly  affect  the  numbers  through- 
out the  season:  There  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  the  killing  of 
the  first  generation,  by  inclement  weather  in  some  seasons  and  the 
absence  of  storms  in  other  seasons  account  for  the  great  variation 
in  abundance  and  destructiveness  of  this  louse  in  different  seasons. 

Because  of  the  great  difficulty  in  controlling  the  insect  after  the 
leaves  of  the  trees  have  become  curled,  the  writer  has  undertaken 
to  learn  if  it  is  feasible  to  destroy  it  in  other  ways.  An  extensive 
seriv's  of  experiments  in  fumigation  with  the  deadly  hydro- 
cyanic acid  gas  was  conducted.  In  these  experiments  we 
used  a large  canvas  tent,  a large  paper  box  and  a small 
air-tight  wooden  box  constructed  for  such  work.  We  will 
not  at  this  time  give  the  detailed  results  of  these  ex- 
periments but  will  indicate  the  lessons  they  taught.  Detailed  instruc- 
tions for  the  use  c>i  this  substance  will  be  found  on  another  page  of 
this  report.  (See  index.) 


222 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


We  found  that  every  aphis  could  be  killed  without  the  least  injury 
to  the  foliage.  Even  though  the  experiments  were  conducted  in 
both  cloudy  and  bright,  hot  weather,  not  a leaf  was  injured  in  the 
whole  series  of  tests. 

We  used  the  cyanide  in  strengths  varying  from  o.io  grams  per 
cubic  foot  of  inclosed  space  up  to  0.30  grams  and  while  o.io  gram 
killed  practically  all  the  lice,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  0.30  did  not 
ii'jure  we  decided  upon  0.20  gram  per  cubic  foot  as  being  the  suit- 
able amount  to  use  in  practical  work. 

The  time  of  exposure  was  20  minutes. 

Considering  the  fact  that  by  a timely  and  persistent  use  of  sprays 
and  washes  the  aphis  may  be  brought  under  control,  I very  much 
doubt  if  this  treatment  should  be  considered  as  a suitable  remedy 
except  in  the  case  of  very  large  owners  or  in  company  orchards 
where  the  expense  of  providing  a complete  fumigation  outfit  would 
be  juslified.  Having  the  equipment  already  at  hand  it  would  cost 
about  4^  cents  per  tree  to  treat  a large  orchard. 

Information  rgarding  fumigation  boxes  suitable  for  such  work  as 
this  may  be  obtained  from  Professor  Johnson’s  work  on  fumigation 
published  by  the  Orange  Judd  Publishing  Co.,  New  York. 

We  also  undertook  a series  of  experiments  with  the  use  of  the 
lime-sulphur  and  salt  wash  as  means  of  destroying  the  egg  during 
the  winter.  We  sprayed  a series  of  trees  with  this  wash  and 
modifications  of  it  in  the  Experiment  Station  orchard  and  at  Lo 
]^o.  .Subsequent  examinations  of  the  trees  at  Bozeman  showed 
that  while  none  of  the  eggs  hatched  on  the  trees  that  were  sprayed 
they  also  failed  to  hatch  on  all  the  other  trees  in  the  same  part  of 
the  orchard  that  had  not  been  sprayed.  We  therefore  felt  that  the 
experiment  had  taught  us  nothing.  The  Lo  Lo  experiment  also 
failed  to  be  of  value  for  the  same  reason. 

During  the  past  few  days  a bulletin  from  the  Idaho  Experiment 
Station,  written  by  Proffessor  Aldrich  (Buletin  No.  40)  entitled 
“Winter  Spraying  for  Aphis  Eggs”  has  come  to  my  desk.  The 
bulletin  gives  in  detail  Prof.  Aldrich’s  experience  in  the  use  of  seven 
different  sprays  used  in  the  winter  treatment  of  eggs  of  this  aphis. 
The  seven  sprays  are  the  following: 

I.  Pure  kerosene. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


223 


2.  Kerosene  emulsion,  one-third  kerosene. 

3.  Kerosene  emulsion,  one-fifth  kerosene. 

4.  Sulphur  and  lime  wash,  1-1-2.  (One  pound  sulphur,  one  pound 
lime,  two  gallons  water.) 

5.  Sulphur  and  lime,  1-1-4. 

6.  Sulphur  and  lime,  1-1-8. 

7.  Crude  petroleum  emulsion,  10  per  cent,  strength. 

From  the  results  of  his  experiments  Prof.  Aldrich  drew  the  fol- 
lowing conclusions : 

“Crude  petroleum  could  not  be  uniformly  applied.  The  emulsion 
was  very  unstable,  and  the  oil  is  much  too  thick  to  apply  pure.  No 
damage  resulted  to  the  trees,  but  in  many  cases  the  eggs  of  lice 
were  not  destroyed. 

Pure  kerosene  seriously  injured  the  trees  to  which  it  was  applied, 
but  killed  all  the  eggs. 

Kerosene  emulsion  of  one-third  strength  injured  the  foliage  to 
some  extent,  though  not  very  seriously ; it  did  not  kill  the  eggs  with 
any  uniformity.  Tn  one-fifth  strength  it  did  not  injure  the  foliage, 
but  was  not  at  all  effective  in  killing  the  eggs. 

Sulphur  and  lime  did  not  injure  the  foliage  in  the  least,  however 
strong.  In  the  1-1-2  and  1-1-4  proportions  it  killed  almost  all  the 
eggs;  it  is  a question  whether  the  very  few  that  hatched  had  not 
been  missed  by  the  spray. 

Of  the  seven  kinds  of  spray  used,  the  choice  for  commercial  pur- 
poses would  undoubtedly  be  No.  5,  sulphur  and  lime  in  the  1-1-4  pro- 
portion, or  what  is  called  the  “Piper  formula.” 

1-1-4  proportion  is  probably  a successful  winter  treatment,  it  will  be 
applicable  only  on  small  trees  that  can  be  closely  examined  and  thor- 
oughly sprayed. 

In  conclusion,  we  recommend  that  Montana  apple  growers  make 
careful,  conclusive  tests  of  the  1-1-4  lime-sulphur  wash  as  a winter 
treatment,  and  mean  while  place  their  main  dependence  on  the  use 
of  kerosene  emulsion  and  whale-oil  soap  or  quassia-whale  oil  soap 
solution,  spraying  trees  that  are  generally  infested  and  dipping  the 

lie  further  concluded  that  while  the  lime-sulphur  wash  in  the 
extremeties  of  limbs  that  are  infested  only  at  the  ends  of 
the  branches. 

Formulae  for  these  washes  are  given  on  a later  page.  (See  index.) 


224 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


THE  FLAT=HEADED  APPLE=TREE  BORER. 


Chrysobothris  femorata  Fab. 

One  of  the  most  troublesome  insect  pests  with  which  the  Mon- 
tana fruit-grower  has  to  contend,  is  an  apple-tree  borer,  which  in  the 
larval  stage  is  expanded  and  flattened  near  the  anterior  end,  as  shown 
ii]  figure  9,  a,  an  appearance  which  has  led  to  its  being  called  “the 
flat-headed  borer.”  Besides  attacking  the  apple,  the  borer  has  been 
recorded  also  on  various  other  deciduous  trees,  among  which  are 
pear,  peach,  oak,  maple,  mountain  ash,  box-elder,  hickory,  chestnut, 
sycamore,  horse  chestnut,  redbud  and  currant.  Mr.  F.  H.  Chittenden 
of  the  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture,  from  whose  circular,  (Circ.  32, 
Division  of  Entomology)  many  of  the  facts  in  this  paper  are  taken, 
states  that  cherry,  beach  and  white  birch  are  probably  food  plants, 
while  an  unknown  authority  has  stated  that  elm,  tulip,  and  cotton- 
wood are  also  host-plants. 

Although  not  considered  to  be  a pest  of  first  class  importance 
this  species  has  been  doing  a great  deal  of  damage  in  this  state,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Bitter  Root  valley,  and  there  is  an  increasing  demand 
for  information  concerning  its  habits  and  the  means  of  controlling 
it.  It  has  been  particularly  destructive  on  young  orchard  trees,  gird- 
ling the  trunk  near  the  ground  and  killing  the  trees.  The  accompany- 
ing photograph  (see  Plate  III,  Figure  7)  shows  the  manner  in  which 
many  trees  have  been  affected  and  killed  in  Montana.  The  only  ex- 
planation the  writer  has  to  offer  as  to  the  cause  for.  the  rather  unus- 
ual numbers  of  this  insect,  is  that  under  the  climatic  conditions  in 
Montana  trees  seem  to  be  affected  to  a considerable  extent  with  sun- 
scald,  an  affection  which  leaves  the  trees  in  an  inviting  and  favorable 
condition  for  this  insect.  It  has  long  been  known  that  this  insect 
prefers  for  a breeding  place  trees  that  have  been  previously  weakened 
by  some  other  cause.  Observation  has  shown  that  trees  which 
have  been  injured  on'  the  side  exposed  to  the  winter’s  sun  are  often 
selected  by  the  adult  in  depositing  their  eggs. 

Young  trees  are  affected  principally  on  the  main  stem  close  to 
the  ground,  but  on  old  trees  the  borers  work  on  any  part  of  the  tree 
except  the  smaller  limbs  and  branches. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


225 


Like  other  members  of  the  same  family  of  beetles  (Biiprestidae) 
the  adults  are  diurnal  in  habits  and  are  most  active  during  the  heat 
of  the  day.  By  a close  search  in  an  infested  orchard  during  the  sea- 
son of  the  year  when  the  adults  are  out,  one  may  find  them  basking  in 
the  sun  on  the  trunks  of  the  trees  and  on  prostrate  logs. 

DISTRIBUTION  AND  OCCURRENCE  IN  MONTANA 

The  flat-headed  apple-tree  borer  is  a native  of  North  America 
insect.  In  spite  of  this  fact,  however,  we  believe  that  it  is  an  in- 
troduced species  in  Montana.  None  of  its  principal  food  plants,  so 
far  as  known,  are  native  to  the  state,  or  if  present,  occur  only  spar- 
ingly, and  moreover,  its  presence  has  been  detected  only  in  restrict- 
ed localities.  We  think  it  much  more  probable  that  the  insect  was 
brought  into  the  state  on  some  of  the  earliest  shipments  of  trees 
from  the  older  apple  growing  regions. 

It  is  a widely  distributed  pest  throughout  the  United  States 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  southern  Canada. 


Figure  9.  Flat-beaded  Apple-tree  Borer, 
a,  larva;  b,  beetle;  c,  head  of  male;  d,  pupa 
— twice  natural  size.  (Chittenden,  Circular 
82,  Sec,  Series,  Div,  of  Entomology  U.  S. 

Dept,  of  Agr.) 

LIEE  HISTORY. 

The  eggs,  which  are  pale  brown  and  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
long,  are  laid  on  the  trees  during  the  hot  summer  months.  One  ob- 
server, Dr.  Riley,  found  them  being  laid  from  June  to  September, 
but  our  observations  in  Montana  indicate  that  while  a few  beetles 
may  be  found  on  the  trees  later  in  the  season  the  majority  are  out  and 


226 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


depositing  their  eggs  late  in  June,  and  early  in  July.  In  about  three 
weeks  the  eggs  hatch  and  the  young  larvae  bore  under  the  bark, 
where  they  feed  for  three  years,  first  just  under  the  bark  and  later 
in  the  woody  parts  of  the  stem.  On  young  trees  they  most  common- 
ly occur  at  about  the  surface  of  the  ground  as  shown  in  the  photo- 
graph above  referred  to.  The  location  of  the  burrow  may  often  be 
detected  from  the  outside  by  the  discoloration  or  slightly  sunken 
condition  of  the  bark. 

At  the  end  of  three  years  from  the  time  the  egg  was  deposited 
the  beetle  bores  out  from  the  pupal  chamber  which  it  constructed 
at  the  end  of  its  larval  life.  The  sexes  mate  and  the  eggs  are  de- 
posited for  the  new  generation. 

NATURAL  ENEMIES. 

The  downy  wood-pecker  which  is  so  common  in  Montana  and 
which  is  so  often  seen  in  our  orchards,  is  the  fruit-grower’s  friend. 
Besides  picking  up  miscellaneous  pests  it  locates  burrows  of  this 
borer  and  extracts  them  in  considerable  numbers.  In  the  older 
orchards  of  Montana  scarcely  a tree  can  be  found  that  does  not  bear 
the  marks  of  wood-peckers,  a large  proportion  of  which  are  made  by 
this  species. 

METHODS  OF  CONTROL. 

Borers  as  a class  of  pests  are  difficult  to  control.  When  once 
in  a tree  they  cannot  be  reached  with  an  insecticide.  They  may  in 
many  cases  be  removed  by  means  of  a sharp  knife  and  a wire  but 
their  presence  is  not  usually  detected  until  a large  part  of  the  dam- 
age has  been  accomplished,  and  the  injury  done  to  the  tree  in  re- 
moving the  larvae  may  be  greater  than  would  be  done  if  they 
were  left  to  do  their  worst.  It  has  been  found,  therefore,  that  clean, 
strong,  cultural  methods  and  the  use  of  deterrent  application  on  the 
trees,  both  of  which  are  preventatives,  constitute  the  best  means  of 
control. 

In  the  first  place,  in  planting  out  a young  orchard  the  trees 
should  not  be  allowed  to  become  weakened  and  so  rendered  liable 
to  attack.  ATung  trees  in  an  exposed  position  should  be  protected 
against  the  strong  rays  of  the  winter’s  sun.  The  alternate  thawing 
and  freezing  on  the  exposed  side  of  the  trunk  produces  the  condition 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


227 


known  to  all  as  sun-scald,  and  makes  typical  conditions  for  the  bor- 
ers. Dead  or  worthless  trees  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  and 
become  a menace  to  the  healthy  ones.  It  is  a bad  practice  to  have 
a brush  pile  made  up  of  dead  trees  and  primings  at  the  side  of  the 
field.  Such  piles  should  be  burnt  very  frequently,  for  they  soon 
become  nurseries  of  pests. 

In  a locality  known  to  be  infested  with  this  borer  it  is  often  de- 
sirable to  use  deterrent  applications  on  the  trunks  and  larger  limbs 
of  both  .weakened  2nd  healthy  trees.  For  this  purpose,  a number  of 
substances  have  been  recommended.  Some  use  old  newspapers  as 
mechanical  barriers  placed  about  the  base  of  the  tree. 

Mr.  Chittenden  recommends  that  these  papers  be  put  on  the 
trunk  for  about  two  feet  from  the  ground  up,  and  that  above  the  pa- 
per a carbolated  or  akaline  wash  be  applied.  Wire  netting  is  some- 
times used. 

The  paper  and  netting  not  only  prevent  the  deposition  of  eggs 
but  also  prevent  the  escape  of  the  beetles  that  emerge  underneath 
them. 

Among  the  substances  that  may  be  used  as  washes  to  make  the 
surface  of  the  trees  objectionable  to  the  adult  beetles  and  so  prevent 
them  from  depositing  their  eggs  are  the  following: 

1.  A thick  solution  of  whale-oil  soap. 

2.  Soft  soap  rendered  thick  by  the  addition  of  caustic  soda  or 
potash  in  solution. 

3.  Either  of  the  above  washes  would  probably  be  made  more 
effective  by  the  addition  of  crude  carbolic  acid  at  the  rate  of  one 
pint  to  ten  gallons  of  the  wash. 

James  Good,  939  and  941  North  Front  Sstreet,  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
offers  for  sale  a product  known  as  Caustic  Potash  Whale-oil  Soap, 
which  of  itself  would  be  a good  substance  for  this  purpose.  It 
should  be  diluted  with  sufficient  water  to  make  a thick  fluent  mass, 
and  applied  to  the  trunk  and  limbs  of  the  trees  to  be  protected. 
Such  washes  when  not  of  a quality  that  makes  them  injurious  to  the 
hands,  are  sometimes  applied  by  a man  wearing  old  mittens  or  socks 
that  are  saturated  with  the  wash. 


228 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


THE  PEAR=LEAF  BUSTER  MITE. 


{Phytoptus  pyri  Scheuten.) 

Though  probably  of  European  origin  the  pear-leaf  blister-mite 
is  now  widely  disseminated  throughout  the  world,  having  been  dis- 
tributed by  the  agency  of  traffic  in  nursery  stock.  It  is  sparingly  dis- 
tributed in  Montana,  but  where  well  established  is  a troublesome 
pest. 

NATURE  OE  INJURY. 

As  the  leaf-buds  of  affected  trees  unfold  in  the  spring  there  may 
be  seen  red  blister-like  spots  and  blotches  which  in  severe  cases  may 
involve  practically  all  the  surface  of  the  leaf.  At  first  the  galls  are 
more  distinctly  seen  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  but  later  in  the 
season  the  spots  turn  brown,  owing  to  the  death  of  the  tissues  com- 
prising the  blisters,  when  the  affected  spots  become  more  apparent 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  The  blotches  often  take  the  shape 
of  elongated  patches  one  on  each  side  of  the  midrib. 

In  each  blister,  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  may  be  seen  one 
or  more  minute  holes  that  lead  to  the  cavity  of  the  blister  and  usu- 
ally visible  only  under  a lense  or  microscope. 

Within  these  blisters  composed  of  abnormal  plant  tissues,  the 
mites  live,  feeding  on  the  juices  of  the  plant.  Under  the  shelter  of 
these  galls  they  are  very  well  protected,  not  only  from  wind  and  rain 
which  might  easily  sweep  them  off,  but  also  against  insecticidal 
treatment.  The  tissues  on  the  inside  of  the  galls  also  furnish  better 
facility  for  the  mites  to  acquire  nourishment  than  would  the  thicker 
layers  of  cells  on  the  surface.  The  freshly  formed  galls  are  thick  and 
succulent,  but  as  they  die  and  turn  brown  they  shrivel  and  dry. 
Badly  affected  trees  lose  their  foliage  long  before  the  normal  time 
which  must  be  an  injury  to  the  health  of  the  tree. 

THE  MITE. 

The  mites  that  produce  these  galls  are  very  minute,  being 
scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  Under  a high  power  microscope, 
the  body  is  seen  to  be  elongated  in  form,  about  four  times  as  long 
as  wide,  and  has  the  appearance  on  the  surface  of  being  made  up  of 


r 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION.  229 


a large  number  of  fine  rings.  There  are  four  legs,  all  of  which  are 
placed  at  the  anterior  end  of  the  body  and  though  small  they  enable 
the  mite  to  move  rapidly.  The  head  is  made  up  chiefly  of  a conical 
snout  within  which  are  two  lance-like  jaws.  To  cover  a linear  inch 
about  150  mites  placed  end  to  end  would  be  required. 

LIFE  HISTORY. 

From  the  eggs  which  are  laid  in  the  galls  by  the  parent  mites 
the  young  hatch,  and,  crawling  out  of  the  hole,  go  in  search  of  an 
uninjured  spot  in  the  leaf.  Then,  boring  through  the  surface  they 
start  new  galls.  The  mites  remain  in  the  galls  until  the  end  of  the 
season  when  they  crawl  to  the  buds  and  seek  shelter  for  the  winter 
under  the  scales. 

Some  mites  remain  on  the  leaves  too  long  and  are  borne  to  the 
ground  when  the  leaves  fall. 

MEANS  OE  DISTRIBUTION. 

Of  itself  the  mite  cannot  travel  far.  Eor  distant  dissemination 
it  is  dependent  upon  outside  agencies  and  has  doubtless  been  spread 
from  country  to  country  on  nursery  stock.  From  tree  to  tree  in  the 
same  vicinity  they  may  be  carried  on  the  feet  of  the  birds,  or  blown 
by  the  wind  on  the  leaves  in  the  fall  of  the  year. 

REMEDIES. 

The  only  vulnerable  point  in  the  life  cycle  of  this  mite  is  when 
it  is  secreted  under  the  bud  scales  after  the  leaves  have  fallen.  Prof. 
M.  V.  Slingerland  found  that  the  mite  “can  be  nearly  exterminated 
'in  a badly  infested  orchard  by  a single  thorough  spraying  of  the 
trees  in  winter  with  kerosene  emulsion  diluted  with  five  to  seven 
parts  of  water.”  In  all  cases  of  treatment  with  a spray  or  winter 
wash,  we  recommend  that  no  twigs  or  branches  that  have  been 
pruned  ofif  be  left  on  the  ground. 

We  recommend  that  the  leaves  from  infested  trees  be  gathered 
and  burned  and  not  allowed  to  blow  about. 

Having  learned  from  various  fruit-growers  of  the  state  that  they 
had  not  found  the  kerosene  emulsion  treatment  to  be  satisfactory, 


1 


230 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION.  ^ 


the  writer  undertook  a series  of  tests  the  lime-sulphur-salt  wash 
as  a remedy.  The  experiments  were  conducted  in  the  orchard  of 
Mr.  C.  M.  Allen  of  Lo  Lo.  I would  here  express  my  gratitude  to 
this  gentleman  for  many  courtesies  extended  to  me,  both  in  connec- 
tion with  these  experiments  and  at  other  times. 

In  the  experiments  Mr.  Allen’s  entire  orchard  of  190  trees  was 
used  and  we  feel  entire  confidence  in  the  results  we  obtained.  The 
spraying  was  done  on  April  21  and  22,  the  pear  buds  being  swollen 
almost  to  the  point  of  opening. 

In  the  various  tests  we  used  the  following: 

Spray  No.  i.’ 

Lime  i pound. 

Sulphur I pound. 

Salt I pound. 

Water  4 gallons. 

Spray  No.  2. 


Lime  i pound. 

Sulphur I pound. 

Water  4 gallons. 


Spray  No.  3. 

Lime 

Sulphur 

Water  


Yz  pound. 
I pound. 
4 gallons. 


Spray  No.  4. 

Lime  i pound. 

Water  8 gallons. 

Ten  trees  were  used  in  experiment  No.  4 (lime  and  water  only)  i 
and  ten  trees  were  left  unsprayed.  The  remaining  trees  were  about: 
evenly  divided  in  experiments  Nos.  i,  2,  and  3. 

The  results  of  the  tests  were  very  satisfactory  and  seemed  con- 
clusive. The  mites  Avere  practically  exterminated  on  all  trees  treat- 1 
ed  with  sprays  i,  2,  and  3.  The  mites  on  the  ten  trees  sprayed  with 
No.  4 were,  so  far  as  we  could  determine,  wholly  uninjured.  These 
trees  and  the  ten  left  unsprayed  were  badly  affected  with  the  mites 
after  the  foliage  expanded. 

Directly  the  other  side  of  a barbed  wire  fence  are  more  pear 
trees  badly  affected  with  the  mite.  The  two  pear  orchards  are  really; 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


231 


but  one,  since  Mr.  Allen’s  orchard  was  purchased  and  fenced  off 
from  the  other  larger  one,  the  fence,  in  fact,  passing  diagonally 
through  one  row.  The  trees  on  the  other  side  of  the  fence  were 
badly  infested  the  following  summer,  thus- giving  us  greater  con- 
fidence in  the  efficiency  of  our  treatment. 

It  appears  that  all  of  the  first  three  sprays  were  equally  effective 
Spray  No.  3 ^-1-4  contains  only  enough  lime  to  cause  the  sul- 
phur to  go  into  solution,  thereby  making  the  caustic  ingredient  of 
the  mixture.  The  spray  when  ready  to  apply  is  clear  and  transparent 
instead  of  milky  as  is  No.  2,  which  has  an  excess  of  lime.  In  spray 
No.  I,  the  excess  of  lime  goes  onto  the  tree  merely  as  a whitewash. 
We  are  not  prepared  to  say  that  there  is  not  some  benefit  in  having 
this  excess  of  lime,  and  for  the  present  we  recommend  the  use  of 
spray  No.  2.  We  do  not  feel  that  the  addition  of  salt  in  spray  No.  i 
renders  the  wash  of  any  more  value. 

In  conclusion,  we  recommend,  as  a means  of  holding  this  mite 
in  control,  a thorough  spraying  with  lime-sulphur-salt  wash  in  the 
1-1-4  proportion,  in  the  spring  of  the  year  before  the  buds  open. 
Directions  for  the  pieparation  of  this  wash  will  be  found  on  another 
page  of  this  report.  (See  index.) 


232 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


GRASSHOPPERS. 


During  the  past  three  years  a considerable  amount  of  damage 
was  done  by  grasshoppers  in  eastern  Montana.  An  extensive  territory 
was  more  or  less  affected,  in  some  localities  the  grasshoppers  being, 
so  abundant  that  there  was  no  vegetation  left.  From  this  extreme 
there  was  every  gradation  down  to  no  injury.  During  these  three 
years  the  grasshoppers  steadily  increased  and  the  seriously  aft'ected 
territory  was  extended. 

The  injuries  have  been  principally  confined  to  the  fenced  and 
open  ranges  used  by  the  stockmen  in  grazing  cattle,  sheep  and  horses, 
but  some  damage  was  done  to  grains,  cultivated  grasses  and  alfalfa. 
We  received  reports  also  of  damage  to  fruit  trees  and  to  garden 
crops. 

Coincidental  with  the  appearance  of  the  grasshoppers  has  been 
a series  of  years  in  which  the  rain  and  snowfall  has  been  much  below 
the  average.  Aside  from  any  direct  or  indirect  influence  which  this 
scarcity  of  moisture  may  have  had  on  the  unusual  increase  of  grass- 
hoppers, it  certainly  very  much  shortened  the  crop  of  grass.  While 
the  amount  of  grass  that  the  grasshoppers  ate  would  have  beeni 
missed  even  if  there  had  been  a full  growth,  it  is  certain  that  what| 
they  took  was  more  seriously  missed  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of| 

grass.  ^ I 

Roughly  speaking,  the  territory  injured  through  the  combined 
effects  of  dry  weathei  and  grasshoppers  may  be  said  to  be  embraced 
in  that  part  of  Montana  drained  by  the  Yellowstone  river  east  of  the 
town  of  Big  Timber.  Not  only  were  the  valleys  of  the  tributaries 
of  the  Yellowstone  affected  but  the  cross  country  as  well.  W e also 
received  reports  of  injury  in  other  scattering  localities.  One  report 
came  through  Townsend  from  the  country  northeast  of  that  towni 
and  we  were  notified  of  injury  on  the  range  in  the  eastern  part  ofj 
Madison  county. 

One  species,  the  yellow-winged  locust,  was  very  abundant  in  re-i 
stricted  localities  in  and  about  the  Gallatin  valley.  We  also  noted 
the  big-headed  grasshopper  to  be  more  abundant  than  in  previous 
years  and  in  two  instances  the  yellow-striped  locust  was  found  in 
great  numbers  in  the  edges  of  this  valley. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


233 


INJURY  NOT  CAUSED  BY  THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN 

LOCUST. 

Many  persons  have  supposed  the  ‘"old-fashioned”  or  Rocky 
I Mountain  Migratory  Locust  to  be  responsible  for  the  losses  in  Mon- 
tana. Our  investigations  of  the  subject,  however,  show  that  no  one 
1 species  is  alone  the  cause  of  the  loss  and  the  above  species  {Melan- 
oplus  spretus  Uhler)  if  present  in  the  state  at  all  is  very  rare.  Dur- 
ing the  five  summers  that  I have  been  collecting  in  all  parts  of  Mon- 
tana I have  not  captured  a single  example  of  this  interesting  species. 
Moreover,  I learn  by  letter  from  Prof.  Gillette  of  Colorado  that  he 
has  had  a similar  experience,  having  been  unable  to  find  any  speci- 
mens during  a longei  period  in  his  state. 

In  our  various  trips  into  the  worst  affected  regions  we  found 
a fairly  Uniform  state  of  affairs  throughout.  On  the  range  two  or 
three  species,  taken  together,  constitute  a large  proportion  of  the 
total  number,  though  in  restricted  localities  one  or  another  species 
besides  these  was  more  abundant.  The  three  most  common  species 
on  the  range  were  the  Big-headed  locust,  (Aulocara  elliotti),  the 
Lesser  Migratory  locust  (Melanoplus  atlanis)  and  the  Yellow- 
winged locust  (Camnala  pellucida).  In  point  of  abundance  the  Big- 
headed grasshopper  was  the  leading  species  of  the  three.  The  Less- 
er Migratory  Locust  was  second  in  importance.  It  prefers  the  dryer 
uplands  to  the  irrigated  valleys,  but  in  many  cases  it  was  found  in 
great  abundance  in  grain  fields,  particularly  on  the  benches  and  in 
;non-irrigated  fields. 

The  Yellow-winged  Locust  is  more  local  in  its  distribution, 
Dften  occurring  in  immense  numbers  in  restricted  localities  and  at 
times  becoming  very  injurious  to  grasses  and  grains. 

We  found  the  two-striped  locusts  to  be  common  in  practically 
all  the  cultivated  fields  that  were  injured  by  grasshoppers.  This 
species  was  particularly  injurious  to  alfalfa,  the  succulent  stems  and 
leaves  of  this  plant  apparently  suiting  its  taste. 

LILE  HISTORY. 

All  our  particularly  injurious  species  are  alike  in  the  main  fea- 
tures of  their  life  history.  The  winter  is  passed  in  the  egg  stage  in 


234 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


the  ground.  The  eggs  are  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length  and! 
are  deposited  in  compact  masses  or  “pods”  which  are  arranged  ver-  |] 
tically,  or  slightly  inclined,  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

In  making  the  hole  in  the  ground  to  receive  the  eggs,  the  female ;; 
makes  use  of  special  organs  at  the  extremety  of  the  abdomen.  Plac-.4 
ing  the  point  of  the  abdomen  against  the  ground  the  pointed  organs;] 
work  rapidly  back  and  forth  and  as  the  hole  is  made  the  abdomen  |i 
settles  into  the  earth.  When  the  hole  is  completed  it  is  filled  with  if 
the  mass  of  eggs  and  a viscid  frothy  substance. 

Prof.  C.  V.  Riley’s  classic  illustration  of  the  process  of  egg-  . 
laying  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust,  together  with  his  description  ii 
of  the  process,  show  that  in  that  species  the  eggs  are  laid  in  four  re- 
gularly parallel  rows  and  that  the  number  of  eggs  varies  between  : 
20  and  35.  He  also  found  that  two  or  three  such  egg-masses  were  1 
deposited  by  each  female  insect. 

The  two-striped  locust  lays  a larger  number  of  eggs  than  this  '* 
for  we  have  counted  as  high  as  62,  in  a mass,  and  two  or  three  masses  . 
are  deposited.  The  Big-headed  Locust  {Aulocara  elliotti)  probably]  I 
deposits  only  two  masses. . 

In  general  the  places  most  chosen  by  the  females  for  the  pur-  ' 
poses  of  egg-laying  are  those  at  which  the  soil  is  fairly  free  from:< 
grass-roots,  or  other  roots  that  would  interfere  with  boring  the; 
holes.  Such  places  are  found  on  the  sides  of  roads,  in  abandoned, | 
roads,  among  tall  weeds,  etc.  When  the  mating  season  comes  thei] 
adults  of  a species  gather  into  colonies  where  they  stay  for  the  re-ij 
mainder  of  their  life.  As  a result,  the  young  are  often  found  in  theij 
spring'of  the  year  in  more  or  less  restricted  localities.  j 

In  our  investigations  of  the  outbreak  of  grasshoppers  in  Mon-i 
tana  in  1903  we  found  that  the  Big-headed  grasshopper  paid  littleil 
attention  to  where  the  eggs  were  laid ; for  miles  and  miles  over  the!' 
denuded  ranges  the  females  could  be  found  performing  this  act. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year,  in  some  species  earlier  than  in  others, jj 
the  eggs  hatch  into  very  small  nymphs  which  on  close  examinationd 
are  seen  to  resemble  adult  grasshoppers,  but  there  are  no  indicationsii| 
of  wings.  As  they  increase  in  size  and  molt  from  time  to  time,  rudi-; 
mentary  wings  appear  which  increase  in  prominence  with  each  molt;- 
until  the  last  when  with  fully  developed  wings  the  insect  is  maturel 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


235 


and  ready  to  lay  eggs.  While  a few  species  of  grasshoppers  pass 
the  winter  as  adults  and  a much  larger  number  as  nymphs,  thereby 
making  it  possible  to  find  some  grasshoppers  in  the  early  part  of  the 
summer,  it  is  a matter  of  common  knowledge  that  they  are  much 
more  commonly  seen  in  August  and  September.  This  is  not  because 
there  are  more  grasshoppers  in  the  latter  part  of  the  season  but  be- 
cause when  winged  they  are  much  more  conspicuous  than  in  the 
younger  stages. 


MONTANA’S  MOST  COMMON  AND  DESTRUCTIVE 

SPECIES. 

In  the  following  paragraphs  we  present  a few  of  the  leading  facts 
regarding  the  most  common  species  of  grasshoppers  that  we  have 
taken  in  middle  and  eastern  Montana.  They  are  not  arranged  in 
the  order  of  their  importance  except  the  first  five  or  six.  Not  all  the 
species  discussed  are  of  great  economic  importance' but  all  are  com- 
mon and  liable  to  be  observed  by  anyone.  Since  some  of  the  species 
are  not  yet  known  by  vernacular  names,  we  have  used  the  scientific 
name  of  all,  but  have  given  also  the  popular  name  when  one  is 
known. 

I am  indebted  to  Prof.  Lawrence  Bruner  of  the  University  of 
Nebraska  for  valuable  information  concerning  our  species  and  for 
the  determination  of  a large  number  of  species  including  a part  of 
those  discussed  in  this  paper.  Dr.  L.  O.  Howard  of  the  Division 
of  Entomology  at  Washington  has  also  very  kindly  identified  a num- 
ber of  species  for  me. 

Aulocara  elliotti  Thomas.  THE  BIG-HEADED  GRASSHOPPER. 

This  grasshopper,  in  point  of  numbers,  stands  first  in  the  series 
here  discussed.  While  it  has  been  mentioned  as  being  injurious  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  States,  it  has  never  before  been  consider- 
ed a prime  cause  of  devastation.  It  occurs  throughout  western 
United  States  and  is  a true  grass-eating  species.  When  viewed  from 
above  or  from  the  side  the  head  is  large  (see  figure)  and  the  tibiae 


236 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


are  bright  blue ; the  antennae  of  the  male  are  long.  It  occurs  prin- 
cipally on  the  range,  in  Montana,  having  seldom  been  found  in  ir- 
rigated valleys. 

Melanoplus  atlanis  Riley.  THE  LESSER  MIGRATORY  LOCUST 

This  species  is  distributed  throughout  most  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada  and  often  becomes  so  abundant  as  to  be  injurious.  In 
Montana  we  have  found  it  in  cultivated  fields  where  it  has  occasion- 
ed considerable  loss,  and  on  the  range  where  in  association  with  A. 
elliotti  it  has  been  injurious.  The  tibae  are  usually  red.  The  size  and 
general  appearance  of  the  species  are  shown  on  the  accompanying 
plate  (Plate  IV,  figures  i and  2). 

Camnula  pellucida  Scud.  THE  YELLOW-WINGED  LOCUST. 

It  may  be  safely  said  that  not  a year  passes  in  which  this  spe- 
cies does  not  become  injurious  in  either  one  part  or  another  of  the 
United  States,  usually  in  the  northwest.  It  feeds  particularly  oil 
grasses  and  grain.  In  Montana  it  has  been  found  to  be  local  in  its 
distribution  and  has  been  destructive  on  the  range  in  only  a few  re- 
stricted areas.  The  under  wings  are  yellow,  the  upper  wings  and 
general  surface  of  the  body  are  variable  in  color,  between  yellow  and 
brown. 

Melanoplus  hivittatus  Say.  THE*  TWO-STRIPED  LOCUST. 

This  is  among  the  larger  grasshoppers  of  Montana.  It  occurs 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  United  States.  It  is  especially  in- 
jurious in  cultivated  fields  and  so  far  as  our  experience  goes  is 
practically  the  only  species  that  has  caused  injury  to  alfalfa.  The 
femora  have  longitudinal  stripes  and  there  are  two  yellowislT  stripes 
on  the  back. 

Hlppiscus  neglectus  Thomas. 

We  found  this  grasshopper  to  be  fairly  common  over  the  larger 
part  of  the  affected  territory.  Its  appearance  is  well  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figure.  (Plate  VI,  figure  2.) 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


237 


Spharagemon  sequale  Say. 

This  grasshopper  is  often  met  with  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  is 
a strong  flyer  and  a difficult  one  to  catch.  In  some  places  it  was  so 
common  as  to  be  somewhat  injurious. 

Arphia  tenebrosa  Scudder. 

This  grasshopper  fies  with  a clattering  sound,  often  poises  it- 
self in  the  air  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  remaining  in  one  spot  with  the 
wings  rapidly  vibrating. 

Chortophaga  viridifasciata  DeG.  THE  GOAT-HEADED  GRASS- 
HOPPER. 

This  exceedingly  variable  species,  found  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season,  often  assembles  in  colonies.  It  varies  between  bright  green 
and  dull  brown. 

Dissosteira  Carolina  Linn.  THE  CAROLINA  LOCUST. 

This  grasshopper  is  the  species  known  to  most  people  as  the  one 
that  poises  in  the  air  making  a peculiar  rattling  or  rustling  sound, 
settling  to  the  earth  as  the  sound  dies  out.  It  occurs  commonly  along 
dusty  roads  and  hot, gravelly  places  as  along  railroad  tracks.  The 
writer  has  often  observed  it  to  be  abundant  in  various  parts  of 
Montana. 

Cordillacris  occipitalis  Thomas. 

This  species  occurs  on  the  plains  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
We  have  found  it  very  abundant  in  eastern  Montana. 

Melanoplus  dawsoni  Scudder. 

This  species  when  mature  has  rudimentary  wings  which  reach 
only  about  half-way  to  the  end  of  the  abdomen.  The  under  side  is 
yellow,  with  prominent  black  bands  on  the  abdomen.  It  has  been 
common  in  lowlands  in  the  Gallatin  valley  and  in  the  Yellowstone 
valley. 


238 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Encoptolophus  sordidus  Burn.  THE  CLOUDED  GRASSHOPPER 

Often  met  with  in  the  field  and  somewhat  resembles  C.  pelliicida. 

Acrolophitus  hirtipes  Say. 

This  grasshopper  of  striking  appearance,  is  uniformly  green 
throughout.  It  occurs  in  restricted  localities,  often  in  considerable 
abundance,  where  in  contrast  to  other  sombre-colored  grasshoppers, 
it  is  quite  conspicuous. 

INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  GRASSHOPPERS.  . 

Grasshoppers  have  a large  number  of  parasitic  enemies  and  when 
the  grasshoppers  as  hosts  become  abundant,  their  parasites,  because 
of  a plentiful  supply  of  food,  become  numerous  also  and  soon  gain 
the  mastery  over  the  hosts.  This  balancing  process  is  continually 
active.  While  we  cannot  say  positively  what  is  the  cause  of  the  ap- 
pearance in  Montana  of*grasslioppers  in  unusual  numbers  it  is  prob- 
able that  parasites  as  a direct  or  indirect  cause  have  had  a great 
influence. 

Various  correspondents  have  called  our  attention  to  the  pre- 
sence of  minute  red  spots  on  the  bodies  of  grasshoppers.  These  red 
spots  are  the  bodies  of  a red  mite  which  occurs  commonly  through- 
out the  state,  and  which  doubtless  does  some  good  in  preventing  the 
undue  increase  of  grasshoppers.  They  have  often  been  mistaken  for 
eggs  of  parasites  but  there  is  no  reason  for  confusing  the  two,  since 
the  eggs  of  parasitic  flies  are  white. 

In  every  part  of  the  grasshopper  aflected  sections  of  the  state  that 
we  visited  in  the  summer  of  1903  we  found  dead  bodies  of  grass- 
hoppers which  contained  maggots  or  larvae  of  a fly.  Some  of  these 
were  reared  in  the  laboratory  to  the  adult  stage  and  the  flies  were 
sent  to  Dr.  L.  O.  Howard  for  determination.  He  reported  the  fly 
to  be  Sarcophaga  cimhicis  Townsend.  We  are  unable  to  state 
whether  this  fly  killed  the  grasshopper  or  whether  the  larvae  were 
merely  feeding  as  scavengers  on  the  dead  bodies  of  grasshoppers 
that  had  died  from  other  causes. 

It  was  noticeable  that  a blister  beetle  or  Spanish  fly  whose 
scientific  name  has  not  yet  been  determined  was  very  abundant 
throughout  the  Yelowstone  valley  from  Columbus  eastward.  We 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


239 


received  a few  letters  notifying  us  that  these  beetles  had  been  in- 
jurious to  garden  phints  and  other  plants  of  value.  This  species  and 
various  other  of  the  same  family  (Melodidfie)  are  well  known  to  be 
very  beneficial  in  the  larval  stage  as  destroyers  of  the  eggs  of  lo- 
custs. In  brief  their  life  history  is  the  following:  In  the  latter  part 
of  the  summer  they  deposit  their  yellowish  colored  eggs  in  the 
ground,  each  female  producing  four  or  five  hundred  eggs.  The  eggs 
hatch  in  about  ten  days  into  long-legged  larvae.  These  larvae  are 
very  active  and  they  run  about  over  the  ground  search- 
ing for  eggs  of  locusts,  finding  an  egg  pod  they  enter 
it  and  begin  devouring  the  eggs.  It  is  said  that  if  two 
larvae  come  upon  the  same  egg-pod  a deadly  combat  oc- 
curs, resulting  in  the  death  of  one  or  the  other,  leaving 
the  successful  contestant  sole  owner  of  the  store  of  food.  As  the 
larva  feeds  and  grows  it  molts  from  time  to  time  producing  remark- 
able changes,  until  in  place  of  the'  long-legged  larva  there  is  one 
with  short  legs  and  rudiamentary  mouth  parts.  The  mature  beetle 
appears  again  the  next  spring. 

Besides  the  enemies  we  have  mentioned,  which  are  among  the 
most  important,  are  many  others  which,  taken  together,  doubtless 
do  much  to  reduce  the  number  of  grasshoppers. 

REMEDIES. 

The  remedies  that  have  been  devised  in  the  various  parts  of  the 
country  are  not  adapted  to  the  conditions  we  find  on  the  grasshop- 
per-ridden ranges  of  Montana.  They  apply  much  better  to  the  agri- 
cultural fields  of  the  middle  west  states,  but  some  of  them  may  be 
used  effectively  in  the  agricultural  valleys  of  this  state.  We  give 
below  a few  remarks  regarding  the  most  important  remedies  that 
are  known,  leaving  the  farmer  to  select  for  himself  the  one  most 
suitable  for  his  conditions. 

Ploughing. — Late  fall  or  early  spring  ploughing  is  the  best  of  all 
artificial  remedies.  It  is  practiced  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the 
eggs  and  it  follows  that  the  eggs  must  first  be  located.  In  our  re- 
marks regarding  the  habits  of  grasshoppers  we  have  called  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  in  the  breeding  season  the  grasshoppers  accumu- 
late in  more  or  less  restricted  areas  and  that  the  eggs  are  laid  in 


240 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


these  areas.  The  observant  farmer  will  locate  these  patches  and 
by  ploug^hing  deeply  will  place  the  eggs  so  far  under  the  soil  that 
when  the  young  hatch  they  will  be  unable  to  reach  the  surface.  Even 
the  young  hoppers,  when  very  small,  may  be  turned  under  in  the 
same  manner. 

Where  ploughing  cannot  be  resorted  to,  a thorough  harrowing, 
especially  with  a disc  harrow,  will  result  in  the  destruction  of  a 
large  number  of  the  eggs  by  crushing  some  and  exposing  others  to 
their  numerous  enemies  and  to  frosts. 

Burning. — When  the  grasshoppers  are  young  and  travel  slowly 
they  may  be  killed  on  or  near  the  locality  where  they  hatch  by 
covering  them  with  a thin  layer  of  straw  and  then  burning  it. 

In  some  sections  of  the  west  where  crude  petroleum  can  be  ob- 
tained at  small  cost  it  is  sometimes  employed  in  the  form  of  a spray 
as'  a remedy  against  young  hoppers.  This  oil  kills  by  contact  but 
additional  effectiveness  can  be  secured  by  setting  fire  to  the  oil 
on  the  ground. 

Bandages. — Some  property  owners  in  IMontana  have  suffered 
injury  to  their  fruit  trees  by  grasshoppers.  The  young  may  be  pre- 
A’ented  from  climbing  the  trees  by  bandaging  the  trunks  with  cot- 
ton batting,  axel  giease  or  some  other  adhecive  substance.  As  the 
grasshoppers  acquire  wings  they  may  fly  into  the  trees  and  in  such 
cases  relief  may  be  secured  by  the  use  of  poisonous  sprays. 

Hopper-dozers. — Hopper-dozers  are  metallic  pans  of  any  con- 
A^enient  dimensions  which  are  partly  filled  with  kerosene  oil  and 
ffrawn  about  over  the  field  for  the  purpose  of  catching  the  partly 
grbwn  grasshoppers.  Many  of  the  insects  after  hopping  into  the 


Fig;  10  Hopper-dozer,  after  Riley. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


241 


pans  and  getting  covered  with  oil  jump  out  again  but  these  are  in- 
variably killed.  The  back  of  the  pan  is  extended  vertically  by  means 
of  a strip  of  cloth  or  canvas  supported  by  upright  stakes.  See  Figure 
10.  In  large  fields  several  hopper-dozers  are  sometimes  attached  in 
series  by  means  of  a long  pole  and  drawn  by  two  horses,  one  at  each 
end  of  the  pole.  I'wo  horses  attached  in  this  way  are  much  better 
than  one  in  the  middle  of  the  pole  because  they  tend  to  gather  in  the 
grasshoppers  rather  than  drive  them  away. 

The  Artificial  Use  of  Diseases. — Under  such  conditions  as  occur 
on  the  Montana  ranges,  where  the  greater  part  of  the  injury  b}^  grass- 
hoppers has  been  done,  the  artificial  use  of  deadly  diseases  is  an  at- 
tractive subject.  If  we  were  able  to  propagate  and  distribute  a 
disease  which  would  be  communicated  from  one  insect  to  another 
and  so  extended  over  large  areas,  the  solution  of  the  grasshopper 
problem  would  be  reached.  Various  experimenters  in  the  United 
States  have  made  careful  tests  of  such  diseases  but  thus  far  very  few 
encouraging  results  have  been  secured. 

Realizing  that  the  artificial  use  of  diseases,  though  offering 
small  hope  of  success,  constituted  the  only  hope,  the  Experiment 
Station  through  this  department  made  a careful  test  of  what  has 
been  called  the  South  African  grasshopper  fungus  disease.  A sin- 
gle tube  of  this  disease  from  Africa  was  very  kindly  given  me  by 
Prof.  C.  P.  Gillette  of  Fort  Collins,  Colorado.  Cultures  on  potato 
were  made  and  distributed  to  about  300  applicants  in  the  state.  We 
also  made  careful  laboratory  tests  on  caged  grasshoppers  of  various 
species,  but  so  far  as  we  are  informed  not  one  grasshopper  was  kill- 
ed either  in  the  field  or  laboratory  test.  The  various  other  entomolo- 
gists also  failed  to  get  results  of  decided  value.  We  feel,  therefore, 
that  until  something  entirely  new  in  the  form  of  a disease  is  known, 
we  will  still  have  to  wait  for  Nature  to  take  her  course,  except  where 
it  is  possible,  in  restricted  areas,  to  use  some  of  the  other  remedies. 

CRIDDEL  MIXTURE. 

The  substance  known  by  this  name  has  lately  come  into  favor 
as  a grasshopper  remedy  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States.  It 
was  first  brought  to  public  attention  by  Dr.  James  Eletcher,  govern- 
ment entomologist  of  Canada,  who,  at  the  meeting  of  official  entomo- 


242 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


legists  at  Washingten,  D.  C.,  1903,  stated  that  it  had  entirely  re- 
placed the  cumbersome  and  inadequate  hopper-dozer.  It  is  made 
as  folloAvs : Take  one  part  of  Paris  green,  two  parts  of  salt  and  40 
parts  of  horse  manure  by  measure.  Add  sufficient  water  to  make  the 
mass  soft  without  being  fluid.  Distribute  through  the  field  to  be 
protected  in  quantity  proportioned  by  the  number  of  hoppers. 

The  material  may  be  scattered  from  a wagon  and  because  of  its 
cheapness  may  be  used  sparingly  over  fairly  extensive  areas.  We 
recommend  that  it  be  given  a very  thorough  test  around*  the  edges 
of  grain  fields  and  other  crops  that  may  be  threatened.  We  know 
of  no  remedy  to  recommend  for  use  on  the  the  ranges. 


THE  COMMON  TOAD* 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  call  attention  to  the  value  of 
the  toad  to  the  fruit-grower,  the  gardener  and  farmer,  to  outline  its 
habits  and  life  history  and  to  urge  that  it  be  protected  against  de- 
struction by  thoughtless  boys. 

At  first  thought  an  account  of  Ijie  toad  may  seem  out  of  place 
in  a report  of  insect  life.  It  is  entered,  however,  on  account  of  my 
firm  belief  in  its  great  economic  value  as  a destroyer  of  terrestrial 
insects,  a large  number  of  which  are  injurious  to.  the  interests  of 
man. 

As  will  be  noted,  I have  freely  consulted  and  often  quoted  Mr. 
A.  H.  Kirkland’s  paper  that  treats  of  this  animal,  published  as  a 
bulletin  of  the  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station.  His  paper  is  the 
most  valuable  that  has  been  published  on  this  subject. 

FALSE  IDEAS  CONCERNING  THE  TOAD. 

Since  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  area  students  have 
observed  toads  and  written  of  their  habits.  Too  frequently,  hoAvever, 
actual  facts  and  superstitions  have  been  confounded,  wdth  the  re- 
sult that  the  early  literature  on  this  interesting  and  valuable  batrach- 
ian  is  a queer  medley  of  fact  and  fiction. 

For  the  sake  of  brevity  we  will  pass  over  this  topic  very  briefly 
and  omitting  an  account  of  the  venomous  character  and  medicinal 


^Bufo  horeas 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


243 


virtue,  as  well  as  many  other  equally  ludicrous  qualities  attributed 
by  the  ancients  of  Europe  to  this  harmless  and  humble  animal,  will 
touch  upon  certain  beliefs  that  are  now  current  in  this  country. 

Perhaps  the  creation  of  the  imaginr*  ciciu  tlcit  is  given  more  cred- 
ulity than  any  other,  is,  that  to  touch  a toad  will  cause  warts  on 
the  hand.  Other  beliefs  that  have  been  lield  m this  countr}^  (\ve 
hesitate  to  say  that  any  of  them  are  ucav  lield)  arc,  that  to  kill  a 
toad  will  produce  bloody  milk  in  cows;  that  a toad’s  breath  will 
cause  convulsions  in  children ; that  a toad  in  a newly  dug  well  will 
insure  a good  and  unfailing  supply  :<i  water ; and  that  a toad  in  a 
new  made  cellar  vvili  bring  prosperii\'  to  the  household. 

No  less  absurd  than  the  above  are  the  statements 
that  we  often  see  in  the  papers  to  the  effect  that  some 
particular  section  has  been  visited  by  toads  that  fell  in 
a recent  storm  in  such  numbers  as  to  be  very  abundant 
in  the  roads,  on  the  sidewalks  and  over  the  entire  surface  of  the 
ground.  While  it  may  not  be  an  entire  impossibility  for  a toad 
to  be  picked  up  by  a tornado  or  cyclone,  no  one  would  accredit  such 
an  atmospheric  condition  with  the  power  of  selecting  toads  from 
among  the  other  equally  movable  objects,  or  if  other  objects  w^ere 
taken  into  the  upper  air  along  with  toads  we  might  rationally  predict 
that  both  classes  of  objects  ^vould  be  deposited  in  the  same  places. 

The  explanation  of  the  occurrence  of  toads  in  noticeable  num- 
bers is  usually  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  they  have  either  hatched 
and  growm  to  a sufficient  size  for  migration  in  some  nearby  swamp 
or  pond,  or  that  adult  toads  are  on  their  way  to  orTrom  such  near- 
by breeding  places.  It  is  well  known  that  toads  during  the  sunny 
hours  of  the  day  seek  protection  under  stones,  boards,  bridges,  in 
dense  vegetation  Dr  in  the  soft  earth — in  other  words,  moist,  cool 
locations.  For  a short  time  after  a storm,  when  the  air  is  cool  and 
the  earth  and  vegetation  are  wet,  the  toads  are  known  to  venture 
forth  even  at  midday  as  they  do  in  the  cool  twilight  hours  of  the 
evening  and  morning. 

LIFE  HISTORY  AND  HABITS. 

The  toad  in  common  with  other  batrachians,  and  like  reptiles, 
spends  the  winter  months  in  hibernation.  In  the  early  spring,  when 


244 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


the  earth  has  become  warmed,  the  toad  emerges  from  its  winter 
quarters,  and,  during  the  warm  hours  of  the  day,  makes  its  way  to 
some  pool  or  stagnant  water  where  it  meets  others  of  its  kind.  A 
little  later,  their  shrill  cry,  the  mating  call,  may  be  heard.  The  eggs 
of  the  toad  and  those  of  the  frog  may  both  be  found  in  the  same  pool, 
the  former  in  long  slimy  strings,  the  latter  in  irregular  masses.  In 
about  four  weeks  the  eggs  hatch  and  the  tadpoles,  which  at  first 
are  very  small  and  very  numerous,  feed  on  the  vegetable  detritus 
and  slime  which  are  found  on  the  bottom  of  the  pond  and  attached 
to  weeds,  sticks,  etc. 

The  tadpole  has  become  full  grown  and  has  transformed  to  a 
very  small  toad  by  about  the  first  of  August,  in  this  climate.  The 
young  toads  leave  the  pond  and  scatter  in  all  directions,  keeping  out 
of  sight  because  of  their  sensitiveness  to  heat  except  after  showers 
when  the  earth  is  cool  and  damp. 

Kirkland  states  that  he  removed  1279  ova  from  one  average-sized 
female  which  had  already  commenced  laying.  This  staternent  indi- 
cates great  powers  of  multiplication  in  this  animal.  We  have  ob- 
served, however,  that  a large  proportion  of  the  tadpoles  never  mature 
into  toads. 

■ For  hibernating  quarters  the  toad  makes  use  of  cavities  under 
rocks,  in  cellars,  in  rubbish  heaps,  etc. 

Both  in  summer  and  in  winter  the  temperature  of  the  amphi- 
bian and  reptilian  body  is  about  that  of  the  surrounding  air  or  water. 
When  the  surrounding  medium  goes  below  certain  temperatures, 
the  animal  becomes  torpid,  stiff  and  may  even  freeze  without  injury. 
If  brought  into  a warm  room  such  an  animal  soon  becomes  active 
as  in  the  summer  only  to  return  to  the  same  stupor  when  returned 
to  the  cold.  That  the  physiological  state  of  hibernation  is  not  de- 
pendent alone  on  a fall  in  temperature  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the 
many  animals  go  into  hibernation  long  before  the  approach  of  cold 
weather  and,  further,  by  the  fact  that  other  animals  hibernate  in 
warm  weather  during  the  period  that  their  appropriate  food  is 
scarce.  Some  animals,  morever,  are  not  aroused  from  their  hiber- 
nating torpor  by  being  brought  into  a warm  atmosphere. 

When  roughly  handled,  the  toad  sercets  from  the  wart-like  pro- 
jections on  the  back  a milky  fluid  of  a most  offensive  odor.  That 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


245 


this  secretion  is  not  objectionable  to  all  animals  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  hawks,  owls,  etc.,  include  toads  in  their  fare. 

LENGTH  OF  LIFE  OF  THE  TOAD. 

European  literature  gives  authentic  record  of  a toad  that  lived 
36  years  and  was  then  killed  by  accident.  Kirkland,  in  his  paper  al- 
ready referred  to,  records  the  results  of  his  inquiry  into  this  inter- 
esting matter  in  the  following  words : 

“Nearly  every  old  New  England  homestead  has  one  or  more 
semi-domesticated  toads  whose  age  can  only  be  conjectured.  The 
writer  has  sought  different  parts  of  the  state  (Massachusetts)  among 
families  who  have  long  resided  on  the  places  they  now  occupy,  for 
some  accurate  information  on  this  subject,  and  from  a mass  of  state- 
ments, given  in  many  cases  with  strong  corroboratory  details,  there 
may  be  taken  apparently  veracious  records  of  two  toads  that  have 
occupied  dooryards  in  two  different  towns  for  twelve  and  twenty- 
three  years  respectively.  The  histories  of  these  toads  have  been 
given  me  by  people  of  unqustionable  veracity,  yet  I hesitate  to  pre- 
sent the  records  as  facts,  since  from  the  evidence  offered  I cannot 
feel  positive  that  the  identity  of  the  toad  in  either  case  has  remain- 
ed unchanged.  There  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  toads  live  to  a con- 
siderably greater  age  than  is  supposed  and  we  may  hazard  the 
opinion  that  many  of  them  reach  an  age  of  at  least  ten  or  fifteen 
years.” 

FEEDING  HABITS. 

Particularly  in  the  dry  climate  of  Montana,  toads  are  seldom 
seen  during  the  sun-lit  hours  of  the  day.  That  they  occur  here, 
however,  is  known  to  all  observing  people..  In  the  spring  of  the 
year  they  may  be  found  in  large  numbers  in  ponds  and  pools. 

The  toad  takes  only  living,  moving  animal  life  as  food.  Dead 
food  is  rejected.  Motionless  living  food  is  likewise  rejected  as  has 
been  observed  by  the  writer  and  other  authors.  Insects  that  “play 
Opossum”  and  remain  motionless  are  not  taken  by  the  toad. 

Unlike  the  tongue  of  most  other  vertebrates  that  possess  this 
organ,  that  of  the  toad  is  attached  only  at  the  anterior  end  where 
it  is  fastened  to  the  floor  of  the  mouth.  It  is  coated  with  an  adhesive 
substance  that  causes  insects  to  adhere  when  touched  by  it.  By  a 


246 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


very  quick  motion  the  tongue  leaves  the  mouth,  touches  and  picks 
up  the  food,  and  returns.  So  quick  is  the  motion  that  the  eye  can 
scarcely  follow  it. 

While  out  on  their  foraging  expeditions  these  animals  show  in- 
teresting traits.  Mr.  Kirkland  observed  eight  good-sized  toads 
seated  under  an  arc  light  engaged  in  picking  up  insects,  which,  de- 
prived of  their  wings,  fell  from  the  lamp  above.  A physician  in 
Malden,  Dr.  Charles  Burleigh,  observed  that  a colony  of  some  half 
dozen  toads  made  their  abode  under  his  piazza,  and  each  summer 
night  about  eight  o’clock  went  forth  down  the  walk  and  into  the 
street  where  they  stationed  themselves  under  an  arc  light.  Here 
they  fed  upon  the  insects  that  fell  from  the  lamp  until  the  electric 
current  was  turned  off  when  they  returned  to  their  accustomei 
shelter.  From  his  observations,  Mr.  Kirkland  concluded  that  under 
ordinary  conditions  toads  feed  continuously  throughout  the  rught 
except  where  food  is  abundant.  He  observed  that  iti  twenty -four 
hours  the  food  consumed  was  equal  to  four  times  the  stomach 
capacity. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  follow  in  detail  the  results  of  Mr. 
Kirkland’s  examination  of  the  stomach  contents  of  149  toads  but  we 
must  abbreviate  and  summarize. 

Various  investigators  have  shown,  and  it  is  a matter  of  common 
observation,  that  the  toad  takes  pretty  much  any  living  animal  food 
that  crosses  its  path,  provided  it  is  not  too  large  to  be  swallowed 
whole.  It  follows  then  that  in  various  parts  of  the  country  the  diet 
of  the  toad  will  be  determined  largely  by  what  are  the  common  in- 
sects found  on  the  ground  and  low-growing  vegetation,  where  the 
toad  can  reach  them.  The  following  table  by  Mr.  Kirkland  shows 
the  results  of  the  examination  of  149  stomachs  contents,  in  Mas- 
sachusetts. Were  such  a study  to  be  made  in  Montana  the  gener- 
al character  of  the  food  would  be  the  same  but  in  detail  it  would 


be  very  different. 

Unidentihed  material  5 per  cent. 

Gravel  i per  cent. 

Vegetable  detritus i per  cent. 

Worms  I per  cent. 

Snails i per  cent. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION.  247 


Sow-bugs  2 per  cent. 

Myriapods  lo  per  cent. 

Spiders  2 per  cent. 

Grasshoppers  and  crickets 3 per  cent. 

Ants  19  per  cent. 

Carabids  8 per  cent. 

Scarabaeids  6 per  cent. 

Click  beetles 5 per  cent. 

Weevils  5 per  cent. 

Chrysomelids  i per  cent. 

Carrion  beetles i per  cent. 

Miscellaneous  beetles  i per  cent. 

Total  beetles  27  per  cent. 

Cut  worms  16  per  cent. 

Tent  Caterpillars  9 per  cent. 

Miscellaneous  larvae  3 per  cent. 


Total  cut  worms,  caterpillars,  etc.  28  per  cent. 

The  gravel  and  vegetable  detritus  were  doubtless  taken  by 
accident  in  the  rapid  stroke  of  the  tongue  with  which  the  food  is 
taken  into  the  mouth.  It  may,  however,  be  of  some  value  in  grind- 
ing up  the  food,  though  it  is  not  always  found  in  the  stomach.  Of 
:he  total  food  98  per  cent  is  animal  and  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
:his  is  insect  life. 

In  this  brief  account  we  will  not  discuss  each  of  the  items 
in  the  above  table,  but  we  would  call  attention  to  the  large  pro- 
portion of  grasshoppers,  ants,  scarabaeids,  click-beetles,  weevils, 
:hrysomelids,  cut-worms,  tent  caterpillars,  and  miscellaneous  lar- 
i^ae  all  of  which  are  for  the  most  part  injurious. 

THE  AMOUNT  OF  FOOD  THE  TOAD  EATS. 

When  in  the  presence  of  abundance  of  food  the  toad  eats  a very 
arge  amount.  Mr.  F.  H.  Mosher  of  Massachusetts  fed  between 
diirty  and  thirty- five  full  grown  celery  worms  to  one  toad  in  three 
lours  time.  Mr.  J.  E.  Wilcox,  an  employe  of  the  Gypsy  Moth  Com- 
nittee  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  before  that 
;ommittee  was  abolished  and  its  work  abandoned,  fed  to  a toad 
if  medium  size  twenty-four  fourth  molt  gypsy  moth  larvae,  all  of 


248  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION.  1 

which  were  swallowed  in  less  than  ten  minutes.  INIr.  Kirklanc  s 
found  in  a single  stomach  the  remains  of  twenty-seven  myriapods  ’ 
in  another  fifty-five  army  worms,  in  another  sixty-five  gypsy  moth 
caterpillars  and  in  another  thirty-seven  tent  caterpillars.  i 

It  is  not  possible  to  make  even  an  approximate  estimate  of  thd 
financial  equivalent  of  the  saving  to  crops  brought  about  by  tlnj 
toad,  but  the  foregoing  facts  are  enough  to  remove  any  shadow 
of  doubt  that  this  humble  animal  is  of  great  value  to  the  gardiner: 
florist,  fruit-grower  and  general  agriculturist. 

THE  TOAD  SHOULD  BE  PROTECTED  AND  EAVORED 

The  wanton  destruction  of  toads  by  ubiquitous  boys  is  knowri 
to  all.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  for  a party  of  boys  to  on 
ganize  an  expedition  to  nearby  ponds  for  the  express  purpose  o 
killing  toads.  Dr.  C.  F.  Dodge,  published  in  the  Worcester  (Mass.;^ 
Evening  Gazette,  March  31,  1897,  an  account  of  finding  in  a sin 
gle  day  two  hundred  dead  or  wounded  toads  on  the  shores  of  ;! 
pond  on  the  grounds  of  Clark  University. 

We  should  not  blame  the  boys  alone  for  this,  the  parents  and 
school  authorities  are  in  a measure  responsible  for  this  worse  thar 
useless  taking  of  life.  Rightly  trained  and  directed  the  boy  can  gei 
more  real  pleasure,  and  at  the  same  time  a pleasure  that  is  infinitel 
ly  better  for  him,  by  observing  the  habits  of  toads  and  other  animals, 
The  toad  is  as  deserving  of  protection  by  legislation  as  are  in 
sectivorous  birds.  The  asthetic,  to  be  sure,  is  lacking,  but  the  as| 
thetic  side  of  the  question  is  not  the  one  that  prompts  us  to  enac, 
laws  that  make  it  a misdemeanor  to  kill  birds.  It  is  the  economic 
and  on  an  economic  basis  the  toad  is  as  deserving  as  almost  amj 
bird. 


» 

MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION.  249 

, 

A MANUAL  OF  FRUIT  PESTS  WITH 

REMEDIES. 

In  this  manual  we  purpose  to  present  in  condensed  and  easily 
accessible  form  the  most  essential  information  regarding  the  more 
important  insects  and  fungus  diseases  that  have  been  recognized  in 
the  state  or  which  are  liable  to  appear  at  any  time.  It  is  our  in- 
tention at  an  early  date  to  prepare  another  manual  similar  to  this 
but  dealing  with  farm,  garden  and  lawn  pests. 

The  reader  should  freely  consult  the  index  in  seeking  the  in- 
formation he  desires.  All  insecticides  and  fungicides  recommended 
are  discussed  at  the  end  of  this  section,  and  formulae  for  their  pre- 
paration are  given. 

Unless  the  fruit-grower  is  confident  that  he  knows  the  pest  he 
ig  dealing'  with  he  should  send  examples  to  the  Experiment  Station 
for  identification. 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE. 

I,  The  Red-humped  Apple  Tree  Caterpillar. 

Bright  colored  caterpillars  with  a red  hump  on  the  back,  feeding 
on  the  foliage  of  apple.  Seldom  very  abundant. 

Remedy. — Remove  by  hand  or  spray  with  an  arsenical  poison. 

2,  Tent  Caterpillars. 

Hairy  caterpillars  with  a bright  bluish  stripe  down  the  middle 
of  the  bacU  Living  on  wild  and  cultivated  cherry  and  on  apple  in 
I the  spring  of  the  year.  They  construct  tents  or  nests  in  the  crotches 
;of  limbs  from  which  they  venture  and  feed  during  the  middle  of 
I the  day. 

! Remedy, — Remove  the  tent  by  hand,  taking  care  to  do  so  when 
the  caterpillars  are  home.  Under  some  conditions  it  is  feasible  to 
locate  and  destroy  their  eggs  during  the  winter.  The  eggs  appear 
as  thickened  bands  on  small  twigs.  Individual  eggs  are  cylindrical 
and  in  the  cluster  are  placed  on  end,  side  by  side. 


250  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


3,  The  Bud  Moth.  ! 

Brownish  caterpillars  with  black  heads,  feeding  in  the  opening « 
buds  of  apple,  pear,  blackberry,  raspberry,  and  other  plants  in  the* 
spring  of  the  year.  Sometimes  very  injurious  to  apple,  destroyingji 
the  fruit  buds,  and  by  eating  out  the  terminal-growing  shoots,  caus-j; 
ing  a bushy  appearance  of  the  side  buds  and  giving  the  tree  an  un-  j 
natural  appearance.  \ 

Remedy. — Keep  the  buds  coated  with  an  arsenical  poison  in : 
the  spring  of  the  year. 

4,  Canker  Worms. 

Not  yet  found  in  Montana.  Appearing  soon  after  the  foliage  is 
expanded  in  the  spring.  Rapidly  devouring  the  foliage  or  turning 
it  brown.  Whole  orchards  may  be  seen  to  be  of  a brown  color  at 
a distance,  as  a result  of  the  attacks  of  this  insect.  When  an  in-; 
fested  limb  is  jarred  the  slender  caterpillars,  about  three-fourths  ofj 
an  inch  long  let  themselves  down  by  silken  threads,  | 

Remedy, — Spray  promptly  and  thoroughly  with  an  arsenicalj 
poison  as  soon  as  their  presence  is  first  detected.  In  regions  where 
they  are  suspected  to  be  present  it  is  well  to  keep  the  trees  banded, 
with  building  paper  and  smeared  with  an  adhersive  substance  which 
may  be  watched  in  the  spring  of  the  year  for  the  purpose  of  learning, 
whether  or  not  the  wingless  moths  are  ascending  the  trees  to  lay 
their  eggs.  A large  proportion  of  the  damage  may  be  averted  by 
the  use  of  such  bands.  “Bodlime,”  sold  b}^  the  Bowker  Insecticide' 
Co.,  Boston  and  Cincinnati,  is  a good  adhesive  substance  to  use  for 
this  purpose.  Tar  or  printer’s  ink  may  be  used  but  are  less  sat- 
isfactory. 

5,  The  Codling  Moth. 

The  larva  is  known  as  the  apple  worm'  and  infests  a number  of 
fruits,  but  is  most  injurious  to  apple  and  pear.  It  is  probably  the 
most  important  pest  with  which  the  Montana  fruit-grower  has  toj 
deal. 

Remedy. — Spray  with  Paris  green,  arsenate  of  lead  or  arsenite 
of  lime  after  the  petals  have  fallen,  again  two  weeks  later,  again 
the  first  week  in  August.  If  it  is  not  yet  in  your  orchard,  watch  for 
its  appearance  by  searching  for  wormy  fruit  among  the  wind-falls 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


251 


and  when  harvesting  the  crop,  and  if  the  pest  is  found,  begin  spray- 
ing the  next  season.  Do  not  bring  to  your  orchards  second-hand 
boxes  from  fruit  dealers  in  town ; it  is  against  the  laws  of  the  state 
and  you  are  liable  to  prosecution.  Such  a practice  will  almost  sure- 
ly result  in  the  establishment  of  the  pest  in  your  orchard. 

6,  The  Web-worm. 

Colonies  of  hairy  caterpillars  living  in  tents  on  fruit  and  shade 
trees  in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  and  early  fall.  Affected  limbs 
are  enclosed  in  nets  and  the  leaves  are  brown. 

Remedy. — Remove  the  caterpillars  by  hand.  — , ' 

7,  The  Flat-Headed  Apple-tree  Borer. 

Fairly  common  on  apple  trees  in  western  Montana.  Prefera- 
bly attacks  diseased  or  weakened  trees  and  feeds  in  the  larval  stage 
in  the  trunk  and  larger  branches,  excavating  irregular  cavities 
under  the  bark  and  later  boring  into  the  deeper  parts  of  the  tree.  It 
may  often  be  detected  by  sunken  or  discolored  patches  in  the  bark. 

Remedy. — Not  an  easy  insect  to  combat.  Practice  clean  culture. 
Dig  up  and  burn  worthless  trees  that  are  infested.  In  some  cases  it 
is  advisable  to  locate  the  burrow  of  the  borer  and  dig  out  the  grub 
by  means  of  a sharp  knife  or  wire  or ^ other  suitable  instruments, 
taking  care  not  to  injure  the  tree  more  than  necessary.  Use  deter- 
rent washes. 

. 8,  The  Round  Headed  Apple-tree  Borer. 

Large,  legless  borers  in  the  trunks  of  apple  trees  near  the 
ground.  The  anterior  end  of  th  body  is  of  about  the  same  diameter 
as  the  posterior  part. 

Remedy. — Treat  as  for  flat-headed  borer. 

9,  Apple  Twig-borer. 

Small,  cylindrical,  mahogany-colored  beetles  about  one-third  of 
an  inch  long,  boring  holes  in  twigs  of  apple,  pear,  cherry  and  other 
trees  and  in  grape  vines. 

Remedy. — Prune  off  and  burn  infested  stems. 

10,  Leaf-hoppers. 

Small  soft-bodied  insects  with  sucking  mouth  parts,  on  the 
under  side  of  the  foliage  of  apple  and  other  fruits.  Another  species 
is  known  on  pear,  still  another  on  rose. 


252 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Remedy. — Spra^/  the  under  side  of  the  foliage  with  kerosene 
emulsion  early  in  the  season  before  the  insects  acquire  wings 'and 
are  able  to  fly. 

• II,  Buffalo  Tree-hopper. 

i Greenish  or  brownish  three-cornered  insects  which  make  longi- 
tudinal slits  in  the  bark  of  apple,  laying  their  eggs  in  the  slits. 

Remedy. — Prune  off  and  burn  affected  twigs,  practice  clean 
culture,  keeping  out  all  weeds  and  unnecessary  vegetation. 

12,  Vyoolly  Aphis  of  the  Apple. 

May  be  detected  by  the  whitish  woolly  masses  on  the  water- 
sprouts  at  the  base  of  the  tree  and  on  old  scars  on  the  trunk  and 
limbs.  The  colony  masses  are  made  up  of  the  bodies  of  the  lice  and 
cottony  secretion  produced  by  them.  The  most  injurious  form  of 
the  insect  feeds  on  the  roots  of  the  trees. 

Remedy. — For  the  areal  form  use  strong  kerosene  emulsion 
early  in  the  season.  For  the  root  form  dig  away  the  earth  down  to 
the  roots  and  soak  with  hot  water  and  return  what  has  been  removed. 

13,  The  Apple  Leaf-aphis. 

Dark-green  lice  on  the  leaves  of  apple,  causing  them  to  curl. 
Common  throughout  the  state.  More  abundant  on  young  trees. 

Remedy. — When  only  a few  terminal  branches  are  affected,  dip 
the  affected  parts  into  a pail  of  kerosene  emulsion.  One  part  in  nine 
of  water,  or  whale-oil  soap  solution,  one  pound  in  eight  gallons  of 
^ater.  Early  in  the  season  it  is  well  to  single  out  individual  affect- 
ed trees  tnd  spray  with  one  of  the  above  solutions. 

14,  The  San  Jose  Scale. 

An  insect  which  has  caused  great  destruction  in  the  United 
States  but  which  would  probably  be  much  less  injurious  in  Montana. 
Minute  circular  scales  on  the  bark  of  practically  all  our  common  fruit 
and  shade  trees.  When  abundant,  giving  the  trees  the  appearance 
of  being  coated  with  a layer  of  ashes. 

Remedy. — Spray  with  lime,  sulphur  wash -when  trees  are  dor- 
mant. 

15,  The  Oyster-shell  Bark-louse. 

, Brownish  scale  insects,  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  long,  elongated 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


253 


in  form,  occurring  on  various  plants  but  mostly  on  apple,  on  which 
it  is  most  abundant  at  the  ends  of  the  twigs. 

Remedy. — Watch  for  the  exceedingly  minute  whitish  larvae 
early  in  June  and  when  they  appear  spray  with  kerosene  emulsion, 
one  part  in  nine  of  water.  Repeat  in  a few  days  if  more  larvae  are 
seen. 

16,  Putnam’s  Scale  Insect. 

This  insect  occurs  sparingl}^  in  v/estern  Montana.  Resembles 
the  San  Jose  scale,  being  a degraded  form  of  life  that  lives  under 
a very  inconspicuous  scale  closely  adhering  to  the  bark. 

Remedy. — If  necessary  to  treat  for  this,  wash  with  strong  whale 
oil  soap  solution  while  the  trees  are  dormant. 

17,  The  Scurfy  Bark-louse. 

A white  scale  insect  on  the  bark  of  apple,  pear,  currant  and 
other  rosaceous  plants. 

Remedy. — Watch  for  the  young  to  hatch  early  in  June  and 
spray  with  kerosene  emulsion,  one  part  in  nine  of  water.  If  neces- 
sary spray  again  ten  days  later. 

18,  Mealy  Bug  on  Apple  and  Pear.* 

Occurs  in  the  vicinity  of  Missoula.  White  cottony  or  mealy 
masses  around  the  buds  in  the  spring.  Found  in  the  winter  under 
the  scales  of  bark.  Has  been  reported  as  injurious  to  young  trees. 

Remedy. — Use  whale-oil  soap  or  kerosene  emulsion  as  strong  as 
the  trees  will  stand.  In  the  winter  search  for  and  destroy  the  cot- 
tony masses  on  the  trunks  of  the  trees,  using  whale-oil  soap  as 
a wash. 

1 9,  Ants  as  Fruit  Pests. 

We  have  received  reports  of  ants  as  being  injurious  to  young 
friut  trees,  building  their  mounds  at  the  bases  of  the  trees  and  eating 
off  the  bark  and  girdling  the  trunk.  We  have  also  known  ants  to  be 
injurious  to  apple  trees  by  gnawing  the  buds  in  the  spring  of  the 
year. 

Remedy. — Pour  bi-sulphide  of  carbon  into  the  colonial  mounds  ; 
from  one  to  five  or  six  tablespoonfuls  should  be  enough.  This  sub- 
stance must  not  be  put  close  to  the  trunks  of  apple  trees. 

*Phenacoccus  sp. 


254 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


20,  Grasshoppers. 

Young  grasshoppers  sometimes  crawl  up  the  trunks  of  trees  and 
devour  the  foliage.  Later  when  they  acquire  wings  they  tiy  into  the 
trees. 

Remedy. — Spray  the  foliage  heavily  with  arsenate  of  lead.  To 
prevent  the  young  from  ascending  the  trees ; tie  belts  of  cotton  about 
the  trunk  or  smear  printer’s  ink  or  some  other  adhesive  material 
'■'n  a band  of  paper  on  the  trunk. 

21,  The  Clover  Mite. 

Giving  the  leaves  of  apple  an.d  other  trees  a whitish  devitalized 
appearance.  In  the  fall  of  the  year  and  during  the  winter  masses  of 
very  minute  reddish  eggs  may  be  found  on  the  trees,  particularly 
in  the  crotches.  The  mites  sometimes  become  annoying  on  lawns 
and  in  dwellings  by  crawling  through  the  windows. 

Remedy. — Spray  affected  trees  with  the  1-1-4  formula  of  lime- 
sulphur  wash  in  the  fall  or  early  spring,  while  the  trees  are  bare  of 
leaves.  Spray  with  kerosene  emulsion  to  destroy  the  pest  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  house. 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  PEAR. 

22,  The  Pear-leaf  Blister-mite. 

Generally  distributed  in  Western  Montana.  Causing  thickened 
reddish  spots  and  blotches  on  the  leaves  of  pear;  later  in  the  season 
the  spots  die  and  turn  brown,  sometimes  causing  the  foliage  to  drop 
prematurely.  Serious  on  individual  trees  but  does  not  spread  very 
rapidly. 

Remedy. — To  prevent  spreading,  gather  and  burn  the  fallen 
leaves  from  invested  trees.  Spray  in  the  spring  'before  the  buds 
open  with  the  1-1-4  lime-sulphur  wash. 

23,  The  Pear  Slug. 

Injurious  to  the  leaves  of  pear,  plum  and  cherry.  Slimy  slugs 
on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaves,  eating  off  the  surface  parts,  leaving 
the  under  surface  and  the  network  of  veins,  which  later  turn  brown, 
giving  the  parts  of  the  tree  affected  a brownish  appearance. 

Remedy. — Spray  with  arsenical  poisons  or  dust  or  spray  with 
hellebore.  , . J i .d 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


255 


IN5ECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CHERRIES. 

24,  The  Cherry  Aphis. 

A dark  colored  aphis  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  of  cherry. 
Common  in  western  Montana.  Occuring  throughout  the  state. 

Remedy. — Treat  as  for  apple-leaf  aphis. 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  PEACH. 

25,  The  Peach  Tree  Borer. 

Primarily  a peach  pest,  but  attacking  also  cherry,  prunes  and 
plum.  Boring  in  the  trunks  near  the  ground,  causing  characteristic 
gummy  masses  to  exude  on  peach  trees.  The  injury  is  most  appar- 
ent in  the  spring. 

Remedy.- — A difficult  pest  to  control.  Keep  the  trees  well  fed 
and  in  a healthy  growing  condition.  Prof.  Slingerland  has  recom- 
mended the  use  of  gas-tar  smeared  on  the  trunks  to  prevent  the 
moths  from  depositing  their  eggs,  and  in  combination  with  this  the 
digging  out  method  to  destroy  such  larvae  as  gain  access  to  the  trees. 

26,  The  Peach  Twig  Borer. 

Though  not  yet  found  in  Montana,  it  may  turn  up  at  any  time. 
Reddish  pink  caterpillars  boring  in  the  young  tender  twigs  of  peachy 
plum  and  prune  in  the  early  spring,  later  feeding  in  the  fruit  near 
the  pit. 

Spray  with  strong  kerosene  emulsion  in  the  winter.  The  oil  de- 
stroys the  worms  by  penetrating  into  the  holes. 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  PLUMS  AND  PRUNES. 

27,  Plum  Gouger. 

Small  beetles,  about  a quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  of  a leaden 
gray  color  with  a yellowish  head  and  thorax,  eating  pinholes  in 
growing  plums.  The  larva  of  grub  feeds  in  the  pit,  later  eating  its 
way  out  through  the  pit  and  flesh  of  the  plum  just  as  the  fruit  ma- 
tures. Attacks  only  American  varieties. 

Remedy. — Jar  the  trees  early  in  the  morning  or  in  the  evening 
when  the  trees  are  in  bloom  and  the  fruit  is  setting,  catching  the 
beetles  that  drop  on  a sheet  spread  underneath.  A few  beetles  are 
able  to  do  a great  damage.  Prof.  Gillette  found  that  a single  female 


256 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


lays  as  many  as  450  eggs.  Gather  and  destroy  all  the  stung  plums 
before  the  grubs  escape.  Spray  heavily  with  arsenate  of  lead  be- 
fore the  blossoms  are  out. 

28,  The  Plum  Curculio. 

The  beetles  make  a crescent-shaped  slit  on  the  fruit  of  the  plum. 
The  larva  feds  in  the  young  fruit  causing  it  to  drop.  Said  to  be  in 
the  Bitter  Root  valley. 

Remedy. — Spray  thoroughly  with  arsenical  insecticides  before 
the  leaves  open.  Jar  the  trees  in  the  early  morning  catching  the  bee- 
tles on  canvas  or  a sheet  and  destroying  them  by  burning  or  cruch- 
ing.  Promptly  gather  and  destroy  fallen  fruit. 

29,  Plum  Aphis. 

Numerous  pale-green  lice  on  tender  shoots  of  plum.  Common 
in  Montana,  sometimes  injurious. 

Remedy — Treat  as  for  apple  aphis,  but  use  extra  precaution  as 
the  plum  foliage  is  much  more  liable  to  be  injured  by  insecticides. 

30,  The  Box  Elder  Plant-bug. 

Sometimes  very  injurious  to  foliage  and  fruit  of  plum  and 
prunes.  Feeds  primarily  on  box  elder.  Red  and  black  bugs  with 
a long,  jointed  snout 

Remedy. — Spray  with  kerosene  emulsion  to  kill  the  young  in- 
sects. It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  remove  neighboring  box  elder 
trees  for  the  sake  of  doing  away  with  the  breeding  place  of  the 
insects. 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  STRAWBERRY. 

31,  The  Strawberry  Leaf-roller. 

Generally  distributed  in  Montana,  and  at  times  a destructive 
species.  Feeds  on  strawberry,  blackberry,  raspberry  and  other 
plants.  Rolls  or  crumples  the  foliage.  Larvae  small,  greenish  in 
color. 

Remedy. — After  harvesting  the  crop,  mow  the  vines,  leaving 
them  to  dry.  Then  burn  them.  If  there  are  enough  vines  to  burn 
well  first  put  some  hay  or  straw  over  the  field.  If  preferred  vines 
may  be  sprayed  with  arsenate  of  lead  after  harvesting  the  fruit. 

32,  The  Tarnished  Plant-bug. 

Common  throughout  the  state.  Native  to  Montana,  feeding  on 
many  wild  plants.  About  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  variable 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


257 


in  color,  but  usually  marked  with  yellow,  black  and  brown.  Flies 
when  disturbed.  Most  injurious  in  the  spring  of  the  year  when  they 
attack  tender  shoots  and  opening  buds.  Most  commonly  known  in 
Montana  as  an  enemy  to  blossoms  and  young  fruit  or  strawberry 
and  to  young  trees  in  the  nursery  row. 

Remedy. — It  is  not  always  easy  to  control  this  insect.  When 
found  on  young  fruit  trees,  jar  them  off  in  the  cool  of  the  day  into 
some  receptacle  which  contains  kerosene  oil. 

33,  Strawberry  Root  Weevil.* 

Small  hard  beetles  with  an  elongated  snout  which  feed  on  the 
foliage  of  strawberiies  in  the  early  summer  The  larvae  feed  on  the 
roots  and  are  very  injurious. 

Remedy. — Delay  the  planting  of  the  new  crop  until  the  beetles 
have  deposited  their  eggs.  Keep  the  foliage  coated  with  arsenate 
of  lead  in  the  early  part  of  the  summer. 

34,  Strawberry  Crown  Borer. 

Small  yellowish  white  grubs  boring  in  the  crown  of  plants  dur- 
ing the  summer.  A species  which  though  not  yet  recognized  in  Mon- 
tana is  liable  to  be  introduced  at  any  time  on  imported  plants. 

Remedy. — In  a field  that  is  known  to  be  infested  do  not  allow 
the  plants  to  become  very  old  but  start  a new  bed  at  some  distance 
from  the  old  one ; burn  over  the  patch  as  for  the  strawberry  leaf- 
roller. 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CURRANTS  AND  GOOSEBERRIES. 

35,  Native  Currant  Saw-fly.  v 

Pale-green  larvae  which  appear  in  the  latter  part  of  June  or 
early  in  July  and  very  rapidly  devour  the  foliage  of  gooseberry  and 
current  bushes.  The  second  brood  appears  about  three  weeks  later. 
Shows  preference  for  gooseberry. 

Remedy. — Dust  the  bushes  with  powdered  hellebore  or  spray 
at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  a gallon  of  water.  Be  prompt  in  the 
treatment  and  do  not  allow  them  to  defoliate  the  bushes. 

36,  Currant  Flies. 

Maggots  feeding  the  fruit  of  the  currant,  causing  here  and  there 
*Otiorhynchus  ovatus  Linn. 


258 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


a berry  to  turn  red  prematurely ; in  severe  cases  causing  the  entire 
crop  to  fall  to  the  ground. 

Remedy. — Either  gather  the  fallen  fruit  frequently  and  destroy 
it,  or,  after  all  of  the  insects  have  dropped  to  the  ground,  turn  with 
a plow  a deep  furrow  of  earth  against  the  row,  then  with  a rake  or 
shovel  smooth  the  earth  down  around  the  bushes  so  as  to  cover  up 
the  hibernating  insects  so  deeply  that  they  cannot  escape.  This 
should  be  done  in  the  fall  or  early  spring. 

37,  The  Currant  Stem  Borer. 

Larvae  of  a clear-winged  moth,  a near  relative  of  the  peach 
borer,  which  makes  burrows  in  the  currant  canes,  sometimes  becom- 
ing very  injurious. 

Remedy. — Watch  the  currant  bushes  in  the  early  part  of  the 
summer  about  the  time  the  fruit  is  setting  and  cut  out  and  burn 
affected  canes  which  may  be  detected  by  the  yellowish  color  or 
wilted  condition  of  the  foliage. 

38,  Currant  Leaf-hopper. 

Minute  whitish  insects  on  the  under  side  of  foliage  of  currant 
in  the  early  part  of  the  season.  Later  they  acquire  wings  and  have 
pinkish  markings. 

Remedy. — Spray  the  under  side  of  the  foliage  with  kerosene 
emulsion,  one  part  in  nine  of  water  in  the  early  part  of  the  season. 

39,  The  Currant  Aphis. 

Green  lice  on  the  under  side  of  currant  leaves,  causing  the  leaves 
to  turn  reddish  in  color  and  to  have  an  irregular  surface. 

Remedy. — Spray  with  kerosene  emulsion  or  whale-oil  soap  solu- 
tion. This  spray  kills  only  by  coming  in  contact  with  the  lice,  there- 
fore direct  it  against  the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 

40,  Currant  Thrips. 

Minute  reddish  insects  of  elongated  form  which  cluster  on 
the  tender  buds  and  blight  them. 

Remedy. — Pick  off  and  destroy  the  affected  parts. 

41,  Currant  Cottony  Scale. 

Cottony  masses  on  the  canes  of  currant  and  gooseberry. 

Remedy. — Spray  with  whale-oil  soap  solution,  i pound  in  4 
gallons  of  water  during  the  winter.  In  gardens  where  it  is  possible 
wash  off  the  cottony  masses  with  a strong  stream  of  water. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


259 


42,  The  Gooseberry  Fruit-worm. 

A near  relative  of  the  codling’  moth  which  feeds  in  the  goose- 
berry fruit,  causing  it  to  prematurely  turn  color  and  later  to  drop 
off.  Several  berries  are  often  bound  together.  Common  in  the 
fruit-growing  sections  of  the  state. 

Remedy. — Carefully  go  over  the  bushes  and  pick  off  the  affected 
berries  and  destroy  them  before  the  worms  leave.  Do  this  at  least 
twice  in  the  season. 


FUNGUS  DISEASES. 

I,  Black  Spot,  or  Apple  Canker. 

This  is  peculiarly  a northwest  disease  and  attacks  only  the  ap- 
ple. It  is  said  to  occur  in  western  Montana.  The  disease  is  confined 
to  the  bark  and  pioduces  characteristic  brownish  or  nearly  black 
spots.  The  spores  are  distributed  during  the  earl}^  fall. 

Remedy. — Under  some  circumstances  relief  may  be  secured  by 
cutting  out  the  affected  parts.  Since  the  disease  spreads  from  No- 
vember 1st  to  February  ist,  it  is  evident  that  trees  should  be  coated 
with  a fungicide  during  this  period.  On  account  of  frequent  storm  > 
however,  it  would  be  difficult  to  keep  a fungicide  on  the  trees. 

2,  Crown  Gall. 

Various  plants,  including  apple,  almond,  apricot,  blackberry, 
cherry,  chesnut,  English  walnut,  grape,  peach,  pear,  plum,  raspberry, 
and  poplar  are  affected  with  abnormal  growths  on  the  roots  which 
have  been  called  crown-gall.  These  galls  vary  from  a size  as  big 
as  a fist  or  larger  down  to  very  small  excrescences  on  the  fine  roots. 
Whether  or  not  all  of  these  trees  are  affected  with  the  same  organ- 
ism is  not  clear.  A serious  trouble  on  apple  in  Montana.  Irrigation 
seems  to  favor  its  development. 

Remedy.— Do  not  plant  affected  trees.  Examine  the  roots  of 
all  new  stock  and  discard  any  that  shows  even  the  slightest  sign 
of  this  disease. 

3,  Apple  Scab. 

Attacks  leaves  and  fruit  and  sometimes  also  the  twigs.  Circu- 
lar smoky  spots  on  the  fruit  which  interfere  with  its  development. 
Spots  begin  to  appear  when  the  fruit  is  about  half  grown.  They 


260 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


may  be  as  large  as  a dime,  but  are  usually  smaller.  On  the  leaves 
the  fungus  appears  as  dark  olive  green  spots  which  do  not  have  a 
distinct  border  line  and  occur  mostly  on  the  upper  side  fo  the  leaf. 

Remedy. — Spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture  three  times  and  ammon- 
iacal  copper  carbonate  (cupram)  twice.  First  spraying  of  Bordeaux 
should  be  applied  just  before  the  blossom  open,  the  second  just  after 
the  petals  fall,  the  third  about  ten  or  twelve  days  later.  The  two 
sprayings  of  cupram  should  follow  the  Bordeaux  at  intervals  of  two 
weeks.  Bordeaux  is  not  used  in  the  last  two  sprayings  since  it 
causes  the  fruit  to  russet. 

4,  Pear  Scab. 

So  similar  to  apple  scab  that  no  separate  account  is  necessary. 

Remedy. — Treat  as  for  apple  scab. 

5,  Pear  Blight  or  Fire  Blight. 

Attacking  individual  limbs  of  pear,  and  occasionally  apple  and 
quince  also.  Rapidly  spreading  until  the  whole  tree  may  be  in- 
volved. The  foliage  turns  suddenly  brown  as  if  by  fire  and  an  ex- 
amination under  the  bark  shows  a fermented  condition.  This  dis- 
ease is  believed  to  be  distributed  by  insects  that  visit  the  flowers, 
as  well  as  by  other  means. 

Remedy. — Cut  out  the  disease  as  soon  as  it  appears  and  prune 
again  whenever  necessary.  Always  cutting  below  the  point  where 
the  disease  is  reached.  It  is  usually  best  to  cut  at  least  a foot  below 
the  point  where  the  disease  appears  to  end. 

6.  Gooseberry  Mildew. 

This  troublesome  disease  usually  appears  in  the  spring  upon 
the  developing  buds  and  leaves,  first  showing  as  a sparse  cob-webby 
coating,  which  later  develops  into  a denser  white,  powdery  coating. 
The  young  berries  are  also  attacked.  A serious  disease  which  very 
much  interferes  with  the  growdng  of  choice  foreign  varieties. 

Remedy. — Spray  with  potassium  sulphite  at  the  rate  of  one- 
half  ounce  to  one  gallon  of  water,  making  the  first  application  as 
soon  as  the  leaves  begin  to  unfold,  repeating  the  operation  at  enter- 
vals  of  one  to  three  weeks.  The  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  car- 
bonate would  probably  be  equally  effective. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION.  261 


INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES. 

Arsenate  of  Lead. 

This  valuable  insecticide  is  rapidly  coming  to  the  front  as  a 
safe  and  reliable  arsenical  poison.  It  can  be  applied  to  the  foliage 
in  any  desired  strength  without  injury,  and  when  applied  remains 
through  rain  storms.  Its  white  color  may  be  detected  on  the  leaves 
thereby  serving  as  a guide  in  its  application.  It  is  made  by  the 
union  of  acetate  of  lead  and  arsenate  of  soda,  both  being  soluble  in 
water.  It  is  no  longer  necessary  for  the  user  to  make  his  own  arsen- 
ate of  lead  for  it  is  now  being  sold  at  reasonable  prices  by  the  Bow- 
ker  Insecticide  Co  , Boston,  Mass.,  and  Wm.  H.  Swift,  Boston,  Mass. 

Paris  Green. 

Paris,  green  is  an  old,  well-known  arsenical  insecticide.  It  was 
first  brought  to  prominence  in  connection  with  the  war  that  was 
waged  against  the  Colorado  potato-beetle  in  the  western  states  be- 
tween i860  and  1870 

In  spraying  with  this  substance  a hot  day  should  be  avoided  if 
possible,  especially  i:  it  is  desired  to  apply  nearly  to  the  limit  of  what 
the  foliage  will  stand  without  injury.  The  water  on  the  foliage  soon 
becomes  warmed  and  when  warm  dissolves  the  Paris  green  more 
rapidly,  thereby  resulting  in  injury  to  the  leaves. 

Arsenite  of  Lime. 

The  desire  for  a reliable  and  cheaper  arsenical  insecticide  has 
led  to  the  employment  of  a product  resulting  from  the  union  of 
freshly  slacked  lime  and  commercial  white  arsenic.  The  propor- 


tions are : 

Commeicial  white  arsenic i pound. 

Unslacked  lime 2 pounds. 

Water 2 gallons. 


Boil  together  for  twenty  minutes  to  half  an  hour.  As  soon  as 
the  arsenic  is  dissolved  it  is  precipitated  by  the  lime  as  insoluble 
arsenite  of  lime.  There  is  danger  however  that  not  all  the  arsenic 
will  be  precipitated  out  as  it  is  difficult  to  tell  when  all  has  been 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


262 


dissolved.  For  this  reason  the  following  formula  is  considered 
much  more  reliable : 

White  arsenic  2 pounds. 

Sal  soda  4 pounds. 

Water  2 gallons. 

Boil  for  about  fifteen  minutes  or  until  all  is  dissolved,  leaving 
a clear  liquid.  Add  water  enough  to  replace  what  has  boiled  away 
to  prevent  chrystalization  of  the  arsenite  of  soda.  A large  quantity 
may  be  prepared  at  one  time  and  kept  as  a stock  solution  to  be  used 
when  desired.  It  should  be  covered  to  prevent  evaporation  and 
plainly  labeled  for  it  is  a deadly  poison.  One  pint  of  this  stock 
is  approximately  equivalent  to  four  ounces  of  Paris  green.  It  should 
be  used  only  in  a solution  in  which  lime  is  present  for,  as  seen  above,, 
it  is  soluble  in  water.  With  lime  it  forms  arsenate  of  lime  which  is 
the  resulting  product  of  the  previous  formula.  It  may  also  be  used 
in  connection  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  in  which  case  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture is  used  as  a diluent  in  place  of  water. 

Counting  the  cost  of  the  preparation  of  arsenite  of  lime  it  is  not 
probable  it  will  be  fctund  cheaper  unless  large  quantities  are  to  be 
used.  In  using  this  substance  in  preference  to  Paris  green,  however,, 
one  avoids  the  danger  of  purchasing  adulterated  goods. 

Hellebore. 

Hellebore  has  a narrow  range  of  usefulness  and  is  effective 
chiefly  against  saw-fly  larvae.  It  kills  by  coming  in  contact  with 
soft-bodied  insects  or  by  being  eaten.  It  is  usually  dusted  on  the 
foliage  either  pure  or  mixed  with  twice  its  amount  of  lime,  plaster 
or  cheap  flour.  The  foliage  should  be  moist  when  it  is  applied  in  a 
dry  form,  otherwise  it  will  not  adhere.  In  Montana  where  the  foli- 
age is  almost  perpetually  dry,  it  would  be  better  to  apply  it  as  a 
spray  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  to  2-4  quarts  of  water.  Hellebore  is 
Jiot  poisonous  to  man. 

Kerosene  Emulsion. 

Pure  kerosene  is  fatal  to  almost  all  insects.  It  is  extremely  pen- 
etrating and  enters  the  breathing  pores  of  the  inserts  and  interfering 
with  their  breathing  causes  their  death.  Pure  kerosene,  however, 
is  more  or  less  injurious  to  plant  life  and  for  this  reason  has  to  be 
diluted  in  some  way.  Since  it  will  not  mix  with  water  it  is  necessary 
to  form  an  emulsion,  and  soap  is  usually  used  for  this  purpose. 


A good  formula  is : 

Ordinary  bar  soap 3^  pound. 

Soft  water  i gallon. 

Kerosene  2 gallons. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


263 


The  water  is  placed  over  a stove  to  heat  and  the  soap  shaved 
into  it.  When  the  soap  is  dissolved  and  the  water  has  reachedd  the 
boiling  point  the  solution  is  poured  into  the  kerosene  and  vigouous- 
ly  churned  for  four  or  five  minutes  with  a force  pump  the  nozzle  of 
which  is  directed  back  into  the  vessel.  The  mixture  takes  on  a 
milky  appearance  and  on  cooling  becomes  jelly-like.  This  is  the 
stock  emulsion  and  if  properly  prepared  will  keep  for  a considerable 
.length  of  time,  but  should  be  diluted  when  used. 

Whale-oil  Soap. 

Whale-oil  soap,  more  correctly  known  as  fish-oil  soap,  is  of 
great  value  as  an  insecticide  against  certain  classes  of  insects  par- 
ticularly scale  insects.  Some  species  of  plant  lice  which  fail  to  suc- 
cumb to  an  application  of  very  strong  kerosene  emulsion  are  readi- 
ly killed  with  a solution  of  whale-oil  soap.  An  example  is  the  louse 
so  commonly  attacking  spruce  trees  in  Montana  causing  cone-like 
galls  on  the  twigs. 

Ordinary  foliage  will  not  safely  stand  a stronger  solution  than 
one  pound  in  four  gallons  of  water.  Most  plant  lice  are  readily  kill- 
ed by  I pound  in  6 gallons  of  water.  If  a good  whale-oil  soap  can- 
not be  obtained  a substitute  may  be  made  by  the  following  formula: 

Concentrated  lie  3^  pounds. 

Water 8 gallons. 

Fish-oil I gallon. 

Dissolve  the  lie  in  boiling  water  and  add  the  oil  to  the  solution 
still  boiling.  Continue  to  boil  for  two  and  a half  hours  and  then 
allow  it  to  cool.  The  fish-oil  can  be  obtained  in  eastern  markets  and 
beyond  doubt  it  would  be  cheaper  for  the  fruit-grower  to  make  his 
own  soap  provided  he  intends  to  use  a considerable  quantity. 

Lime-Sulphur-Salt  Solution. 

This  insecticide  is  used  chiefly  as  a means  of  destroying  the 
San  Jose  scale,  but  is  of  great  value  also  as  a remedy  for  many  other 
pests.  Though  various  formulae  have  been  given  for  the  preparation 
of  this  wash,  the  active  caustic  principle  is  the  same  in  all.  The 
caustic  ingredient  is  produced  by  the  union  if  the  sulphur  and  lime. 
In  part  two  of  Bulletin  56  of  the  Washington  Experiment  Station  by 
Prof.  C.  V.  Piper  and  R.  W.  Thatcher  it  is  shown  by  accurate  chem- 
ical processes  that,  practically  speaking,  one  part  of  lime  causes  two 
parts  of  sulphur  to  go  into  solution  and  that  the  presence  of  salt  in 
the  solution  does  not  influence  the  action  of  the  sulphur  and  lime 
upon  each  other.  It  follows  then,  that  if  a greater  proportion  of  lime 
is  used,  the  excess  goes  onto  the  tree  merely  in  the  form  of  a white- 
wash, and  if  the  salt  has  any  value  it  is  purely  a mechanical  otie,  for 
salt  in  such  a small  proportion  is  valueless  as  an  insecticide.  We 


264 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


are  not  prepared  ro  say  that  there  is  not  some  benefit  to  be  derived 
from  the  presence  of  the  salt  and  the  excess  of  lime- and  for  the  pre- 
sent we  recommend  the  formulae  given  below.  We  suggest,  how- 
ever, that  fruit-growers  make  more  careful  tests  of  the  wash  with 
the  salt  omitted  and  with  the  sulphur  and  lime  in  the  proportion  of 
I to  I.  It  will,  of  course,  be  understood  that  a variation  in  the 
amount  of  water  used  in  the  formulae  will  result  in  making  the  wash 
more  or  less  concentrated  according  as  more  or  less  water  is  used. 

The  ingredients  may  be  used  in  the  following  proportion : 

' Lime  i pound. 

Sulphur I pound. 

Salt to  I pound. 

' Water  4 gallons. 

While  we  recommend  the  addition  of  salt  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, this  substance  is  unnecessary  in  the  treatment  of  pear- 
leaf  blister  mite,  moreover.  Prof.  Piper  found  it  to  be  unnecessary 
in  treating  for  the  San  Jose  scale. 

Slake  the  lime  thoroughly  in  a vessel,  which  is  to  be  used  in 
boiling  the  mixture,  then  add  the  sulphur;  boil  at  least  for  one  hour 
using  enough  water  to  completely  cover  the  sulphur  and  lime.  Add 
the  remainder  of  the  water  of  the  formula. 

Hyhrocyanic  Acid  Gas. 

This  very  deadly  gas  is  coming  into  common  use  as  a means  of 
destroying  many  forms  of  insect  life  that  cannot  be  controlled  with 
poisons  or  contact  insecticides. 

The  gas  is  a deadly  poison  to  all  animal  life  and  in  its  use  great 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  inhale  it.  It  is  prepared  by  the  action  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  potassium  cyanide.  The  potassium  cyanide, 
again,  is  a deadly  poison  and  a small  quantity  taken  into  the  stom- 
ach will  result  in  death.  Potassium  cyanide  may  be  obtained  from 
Roesler  Hasslacher  & Co.  of  New  York  City. 

The  gas  is  used  in  different  strengths  for  different  purposes. 
The  desired  strength  being  obtained  by  taking  a given  quantity  of 
the  potassium  cyanide  and  adding  to  it  the  required  amount  of  sul- 
phuric acid.  For  fumigation  of  nursery  stock  the  proprtions  used, 
per  each  cubic  foot  of  space  inclosed  are : 

Potassium  cyanide,  0.25  grams. 

Sulphuric  acid,  98  per  cent. 

One-half  more  acid,  liquid  measure  than  cyanide, 
i Water,  one-half  more  water  liquid  measure  than  acid. 

The  following  is  taken  from  Johnson’s  Fumigation  methods: 

“The  amount  of  cyanide  necessary  for  any  inclosure  is  determin- 
ed in  terms  of  grams  per  cubic  foot  of  space  inclosed  To  deter- 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


265 


mine  the  exact  anioinit  of  cyanide  necessar}^  to  ft  ‘.ri’.c^-ate  a roojn,  car, 
ship  or  building  of  any  kind  the  cubic  contents  must  be  accurately 
computed.  As  an  example : a room  20  x 30  x 10  feet  contains  6,000 
cubic  feet  of  air  space.  To  estimate  the  amount  of  cyanide  ncessary 
for  this  in  closure  multiply  6,000  by  0.25  ; thus  : 6,000  times  0.25  equals 
1500  grams.  To  reduce  this  to  ounces  divide  by  28.35  ^-S  there  are 
28.35  grams  in  an  ounce;  thus:  1500  divided  by  28.35  eqt-tals  53 
ounces,  the  exact  amount  necessary  for  the  inclosure.  It  is  now 
easy  to  determine  the  amount  of  acid  and  water,  as  a half  more  acid, 
liquid  measure,  than  cyanide,  and  a half  more  water  than  cyanide 
are  used ; thus ; 53  divided  by  2 equals  26.5,  which  added  to  53 
equals  79.5  ounces  of  acid  or  practically  5 pounds  liquid  measure. 
Again  79.5  or  practically  80,  as  we  usually  discard  fractions,  equals 
40,  which  added  to  80  makes  120  ounces  of  water.” 

In  liberating  the  acid  the  gas  is  first  measured  and  poured  into 
an  earthenware  dish,  then  the  ^^:ater  is  measured  and  poured  into  the 
acid".  The  potassium  cyanide  which  has  been  previously  weighed  is 
then  added  to  the  acid  and  water  after  every  precautionary  arange- 
ment  has  been  made.  If  a room  is  to  be  fumigated,  a bag  contain- 
ing the  potassium  cyanide  should  be  suspended  directly  above  the 
jar  with  the  string  suspending  it  passing  through  a pulley.  Then 
the  operator  from  the  door  may  release  the  string  and  allow  the  bag 
to  settle  into  the  jar.  If  the  space  to  be  fumigated  is  under  a tent 
the  cyanide  may  be  dropped  in  from  the  hand.  Close  the  door  tight- 
ly or  drop  the  tent  quickly  and  leave  the  desired  length  of  time.  The 
room  or  the  tent  should  be  air-tight.  The  exposure  usually  employ- 
ed is  thirty  to  forty  minutes. 

Some  horticulturists  fumigate  their  green-houses  a few  times  a 
year  and  are  able  hy  this  means  to  keep  down  all  injurious  insects 
except  the  red  spider.  In  fumigating  mills,  hotels,  etc.,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  an  arrangement  for  ventilating  the  rooms  from  the  out- 
side. This  may  be  done  by  attaching  cords  to  the  window  sashes. 
After  fumigation,  such  buildings  must  be  allowed  to  ventilate  thor- 
oughly before  entering  them.  In  fumigating  buildings  give  an  ex- 
posure of  I hour  to  24  hours. 

Bordeaux  Mixture. 

We  quote  the  following  from  Farmers’  Bulletin,  No.  38,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  prepared  by  Dr.  Galloway : 

“All  things  considered,  it  is  believed  that  the  best  results  will 
be  obtained  from  the  use  of  what  is  known  as  the  50-gallon  formula 
of  this  preparation.  This  contains : 


Water 50  gallons. 

Copper  sulphate 6 pounds. 

Unslacked  lime  4 pounds. 


266 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


It  has  been  found  that  the  method  of  combining  the  ingredients 
has  an  important  bearing  on  both  the  chemical  composition  and 
the  physical  structure  of  the  mixture.  The  best  results  have  been 
obtained  from  the  use  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  made  in  accordance 
with  the  following  directions : 

In  a barrel  or  other  suitable  vessel,  place  25  gallons  of  water. 
Weigh  out  6 pounds  of  copper  sulphate,  then  tie  the  same  in  a piece 
of  coarse  gunny-sack  and  suspend  it  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
water.  By  tying  the  bag  to  a stick  across  the  top  of  the  barrel  no 
further  attention  will  be  required.  In  another  yessel  slack  4 pounds  of 
lime,  using  care  in  order  to  obtain  a smooth  paste,  free  from  grit 
and  small  lumps.  To  accomplish  this  it  is  best  to  place  the  lime  in 
an  ordinary  waterpail  and  add  only  a small  quantity  of  water  at 
first,  say  a quart  or  a quart  and  a half.  When  the  lime  begins  to 
crack  and  crumble  and  the  water  to  disappear  add  another  quart  or 
more,  exercising  care  that  the  lime  at  no  time  gets  too  dry.  Toward 
the  last  considerable  water  will  be  required,  but  if  added  carefully 
and  slowly  a perfectly  smooth  paste  will  be  obtained,  provided,  of 
course,  the  lime  is  of  good  quality.  When  the  lime  is  slacked,  add 
sufficient  water  to  the  paste  to  bring  the  whole  up  to  25  gallons. 
When  the  copper  sulphate  is  entirely  dissolved  and  the  lime  is  cool, 
pour  the  lime  milk  and  copper  sulphate  solution  together  into  a 
barrel  holding  50  gallons.  The  milk  of  lime  should  be  thoroughly 
stirred  before  pouring.  The  method  described  insures  good  mixing, 
but  to  complete  this  work  the  barrel  of  liquid  should  receive  a final 
stirring,  for  at  least  three  minutes,  with  a broad  wooden  paddle. 

It  is  now  necessary  to  determine  whether  the  mixture  is  per- 
fect— that  is,  if  it  will  be  safe  to  apply  it  to  tender  foliage.  To  ac- 
complish this,  two  simple  tests  may  be  used.  First  insert  the  blade 
of  a pen-knife  in  the  mixture,  allowing  it  to  remain  there  for  at  least 
one  minute.  If  metallic  copper  forms  on  the  blade,  or,  in  other 
words,  if  the  polished  surface  of  the  steel  assumes  the  color  of  cop- 
per plate,  the  mixture  is  unsafe  and  more  lime  must  be  added.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  blade  of  the  knife  remains  unchanged,  it  is 
safe  to  conclude  that  the  mixture  is  as  safe  as  it  can  be  made.  As 
an  additional  test,  however,  some  of  the  mixture  may  be  poured 
into  an  old  plate  or  saucer,  and  while  held  between  the  eyes  and  the 
light  the  breath  should  be  gently  blown  upon  the  liquid  for  at  least 
half  a minute.  If  the  mixture  is  properly  made,  a thin  pellicle,  look- 
ing like  oil  on  water,  will  begin  to  form  on  the  surface  of  the  liquid. 
If  no  pellicle  forms,  more  lime  should  be  added. 

If  spraying  is  to  be  done  upon  a large  scale,  it  will  be  found 
more  convenient  and  economical  in  every  way  to  prepare  what  are 
known  as  stock  solutions  of  both  copper  and  lime.  To  prepare  a 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


267 


r- 


stock  solution  of  copper  sulphate,  procure  a barrel  holding  fifty  gal- 
lons. Weigh  out  100  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  and  after  tying  it 
in  a sack  suspend  it  so  that  it  will  hang  as  near  the  top  of  the  barrel 
as  possible.  Fill  the  barrel  with  water  and  in  two  or  three  days  the 
copper  will  be  dissolved.  Now  remove  the  sack  and  add  enough 
water  to  bring  the  solution  up  again  to  the  50-gallon  mark,  previ- 
ously made  on  the  barrel.  It  will  be  understood,  of  course,  that  this 
second  adding  of  water  is  merely  to  replace  the  space  previously  oc- 
cupied by  the  sack  and  the  crystals  of  copper  sulphate.  Each  gallon 
of  the  solution  thus  made  will  contain  two  pounds  of  copper  sul- 
phate, and,  under  all  ordinary  conditions  of  temperature,  there  will 
be  no  material  recrystalization,  so  that  the  stock  preparation  may  be 
kept  indefinitely. 

Stock  lime  may  be  prepared  in  the  same  way  as  the  copper  sul- 
phate solution.  Prepare  a barrel  holding  50  gallons,  making  a 
mark  to  indicate  the  50-gallon  point.  Weigh  out  100  pounds  of  lime, 
place  it  in  a barrel  and  slack  it.  When  slacked,  add  sufficient  water 
to  bring  the  whole  mass  up  to  50  gallons.  Each  gallon  of  this  pre- 
paration contains,  after  thoroughly  stirring,  two  pounds  of  lime. 

When  it  is  desired  to  make  Bordeaux  mixture  of  the  50-gallon 
formula  it  is  only  necessary  to  measure  out  three  gallons  of  the 
stock  copper  solution,  and,  after  thoroughly  stirring,  2 gallons  of 
stock  lime;  dilute  each  to  25  gallons,  mix,  stir,  and  test  as  already 
described.  One  test  will  be  sufficient  in  this  case.  In  other  words, 
it  will  not  be  necessary  to  test  each  lot  of  Bordeaux  made  from  the 
stock  preparations,  provided  the  first  lot  is  perfect  and  no  change  is 
made  in  the  quantity  of  the  materials  used.  Special  care  should  be 
taken  to  see  that  the  lime  milk  is  stirred  thoroughly  each  time  be- 
fore applying.  As  a final  precaution  it  will  be  well  to  keep  both  the 
stock  copper  sulphate  and  the  stock  lime  tightly  covered.” 

For  trees  in  foliage  use  only  4 pounds  of  the  blue  stone  to  50 
gallons  of  water.  For  tender  foliage  like  plum,  cherry,  and  peach 
use  3 pounds  of  blue  stone  to  50  gallons  of  water  (Bui.  75,  Oregon 
Exp.  Station).  / 

Ammoniacal  Solution  of  Copper  Carbonate. 

We  also  take  this  description  from  Farmers’  Bulletin  No.  38. 

'‘This  preparation  as  now  generally  used,  contains: 


Water  45  gallons. 

Strong  Aqua  ammonia  3 pints. 

Copper  carbonate 5 ounces. 


The  copper  carbonate  is  first  made  into  a thin  paste  by  adding 
a pint  and  a half  of  wate’r.  The  ammonia  water  is  then  slowly  add- 
ed, and  if  of  the  proper  strength,  i.  e.,  26  degrees,  a clear,  deep-blue 


268 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


solution  is  obtained,  which  does  not  become  cloudy  when  diluted  to 
45  gallons. 

The  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  carbonate  being  a clear  li- 
quid its  presence  on  the  leaves,  fruit,  and  other  parts  of  the  treated 
plant  is  not  so  noticeable  as  where  preparations  containing  lime  are 
used. 

In  case  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  strong  solution  as  a stock  pre- 
paration, the  bottle  or  jug  in  which  it  is  placed  should  be  tightly 
corked.” 

Copper  Sulphate. 

Copper  sulphate  (blue  vitrol  or  blue  stone)  solution  is  some- 
times used  in  place  of  Bordeaux  mixture.  It  is  also  used  as  a means 
of 'destroying  the  spores  of  grain  smut  on  seed  grain,  but  for  this 
purpose  formalin  is  considered  to  be  better. 

For  trees  in  a dormant  state,  use  copper  sulphate,  i pound  in  25 
gallons  of  water.  For  trees  in  foliage  use  copper  sulphate,  i pound 
in  250  gallons  of  water. 

Potassium  Sulphide. 

This  substance,  also  known  as  liver  of  sulphur,  may  be  obtain- 
ed from  almost  any  druggist.  It  is  used  in  the  proportion  of  one- 
half  to  one  ounce  in  one  gallon  of  water.  A stock  solution  may  be 
made  as  follows: 

Potash  32  pounds. 

Sulphur  37  pounds. 

Salt  2 pounds. 

Water 50  gallons. 

The  potash,  sulphur  and  salt  are  put  into  a large,  metallic  tub 

with  a part  of  the  water;  the  chemical  action  will  make  the  mixture 
boil.  Add  the  remainder  of  the  water  and  set  it  away  as  a stock 
solution,  covering  it  to  prevent  evaporation.  Dilute  with  99  parts  of 
water  before  spraying. 


R.  A.  COOLEY. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


269 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES 

(Photographed  from  Nature  by  R.  A,  Cooley  except  top  figure 
of  plate  II,  which  was  loaned  by  Prof.  Slingerland  from  his  bulletin 
on  the  bud  moth,  147,  Corn.  Uniy.  Experiment  Station.) 

PLATE  1. 

Fig.  I,  Egg  of  the  bud  moth,  greatly  enlarged.  ^ 

“ 2,  The  5-spotted  lady-bug,  enlarged.  i 

“ 3,  Cluster  of  eggs  of  the  5-spotted  lady-bug.  ' 

“ 4,  Same. 

“ 5,  Larva  of  the  5-spotted  lady-bug,  about  four  time  en- 

larged. 

Fig.  6,  Base  of  apple  leaf  from  below  showing  work  of  bud 
moth  larva.  The  web  and  tubular  retreat  are  indistinctly  shown. 

Fig.  7,  Full  grown  larva  of  the  bud  moth,  about  three  times 
enlarged. 


PLATE  II. 

Fig.  at  top,  Apple  twig  showing  work  aone  by  bud  moth  larvae 
early  in  the  season. 

Fig.  I,  Apple-leaf  aphis  on  the  under  side  of  a leaf. 

2,  Terminal  apple  shoots  showing  leaves  deformed  by  ap- 
ple leaf-aphis. 


PLATE  III. 

Fig.  I,  Top  view  of  Sarcophaga  cimbicis  Townsend,  about 
twice  natural  size. 

Fig.  2,  Same  from  side. 

“ 3,  Larva  or  maggot  of  same. 

“ 4,  Pupa  of  same. 

“ 5,  Apple  leaf-aphis,  enlarged. 

“ 6,  Eggs  of  apple  leaf-aphis,  about  twice  natural  size. 

“ 7,*  Root  and  base  of  trunk  of  young  apple  tree  showing  in- 

jury done  by  Flat-headed  apple-tree  borer. 


270 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


PLATE  IV. 

Lines  indicate  the  length  of  the  body  from  front  of  head  to  tip 
of  wings  or  abdomen,  whichever  extends  farther. 

Fig.  I,  Lesser  Migratory  Locust,  Melanoplus  atlanis  Riley, 
female. 

Fig.  2,  Same,  male.  ► ' 

“ 3,  Big-headed  Grasshopper,  Aulocara  elliotti  Thomas, 

female. 

Fig.  4,  Same,  male. 


PLATE  V. 

Lines  indicate  the  length  of  the  body  from  front  of  head  to  tip 
of  wings  or  abdomen  whichever  extends  farther. 

Fig.  I,  Yellow-winged  Locust,  Cam/iu7a  pe77ncfc/a  Scud,  female 
‘‘  2,  Same,  male. 

‘‘  3,  Two-striped  locust,  Melanoplus  bivittatus  Say,  female. 

“ 4,  Same,  male. 

PLATE  VI. 

Lines  indicate  the  length  of  the  body  from  front  of  head  to  tip 
of  wing  or  abdomen  whichever  extends  farther. 

Fig.  I,  Melanoplus  dawsoni  Scudder,  female. 

2,  Hippiscus  neglectus  Thomas,  temale. 

“ 3,  Chortophaga  viridifasciata  DeG.,  female. 

' 4,  Encoptolophus  sordidus  Burm,  female. 

PLATE  VII. 

Lines  indicate  the  length  of  the  body  from  front  of  head  to  tip 
of  wings  or  abdomen  whichever  extends  farther. 

Fig.  I,  Spharagemon  aequale  Say,  female.  i 

2,  Melanoplus  spretus  LTler,  fe^male.  i 

“ 3,  Arphia  tenebrosa  Scudder,  female. 

4,  Acrolophitus  hirtipes  Say,  female.  , 

PLATE  VIII. 

Lines  indicate  the  length  of  the  body  from  front  of  head  to  tip! 
of  abdomen  or  wings  whichever  extends  farther.*  | 

Fig.  I Dissosteira  Carolina  Linn.,  female.  j 

**  2,  Cordillacris  occipitalis  Thomas,  female.  I 

3,  Egg  mass  of  M.  bivittatus^  about  three  and  one-half 

times  natural  size  . ^ 

Fig.  4,  Same  with  the  surface  removed.  i 


PLATE  I 


PLATE  II 


PLATE  III 


PLATE  IV 


PLATE  V 


PLATE  VI 


PLATE  VII 


PLATE  VIM 


INDEX 


\ 


ACROLOPHITUS  HIRTIPES  

AMMONIACAL  SOLUTION  OF  COPPER  CARBONATE 

ANTS  AS  FRUIT  PESTS  

APHIS,  APPLE^LEAF  

APHIS,  CHERRY 

APHIS,  CURRANT  

APHIS  LION  

APHIS  WOOLLY,  OF  APPLE - 

APHIS,  PLUM 

APHIS  POMI 

APPLE  CANKER  OR  BLACK  SPOT 

APPLE  LEAF-APHIS 

Character  and  Extent  of  Injury 

Description  and  Life  History 

Natural  Enemies 

Remedies 

APPLE  SCAB 

APPLE  TWIG-BORER. 

ARPHIA  TENEBROSA 

ARSENATE  OF  LEAD 

ARSENITE  OF  LIME 

ARSENITE  OF  SODA 

BIG-HEADED  GRASSHOPPER 

BLACK  SPOT,  OR  YPPLE  CANKER 

BLUE  STONE  ^ 

BLUE  VITROL 

BORDEAUX  MIXTURE  

BOWKER  INSECTICIDE  COMPANY 

BOX-ELDER  PLANT  BUG 

BUD  MOTH,  THE 

Occurrence  in  Montana 

Importance  of  the  Pest 

Natural  History  and  Habits 

Kinus  of  Trees  the  Bud  Moths  Attacks 

Means  of  Distribution 

Natural  Enemies 

Method  of  Preventing  Its  Ravages 


Page. 
. . 238 

. . 267 

. . 253 

214-252 
. . 255 

. . 258 

. . 218 
. . 252 

. ..  256 
. . 214 

. . 259 

214-252 
. . 214 

. . 216 
. . 218 
. . 220 


. . . 251 

. . . 237 

...  261 
..,  261 
...  262 
. . . 235 

. . . 259 

. . . 268 
. . . 268 
.262-265 
. . . 261 
. . . 256 

6201-250 
. . . 201 
. . . 201 
. . . 202 
. . . 206 
. . . 206 
. . . 206 
. . . 206 


272 


INDEX. 


BUFFALO  TREE-HOPPER 

BUFO  BOREAS 

CAMNULA  PELLUCID  A 

CANKER  WORMS 

CAROLINA  LOCUST  

CHERPfY  APHIS 

CHORTOPHAGA  VIRIDIFASCIATA 

CHRYSOBOTHRIS  FEMORATA 

CLOVER  MITE  

COMMON  TOAD,  THE 

False  Ideas  Concerning  the  Toad 

t Life  History  and  Habits 

Length  of  life  of  the  Toad 

I Feeding  Habits  

Amount  of  Food  the  Toad  Eats 

The  Toad  Should  Be  Protected  and  Favored 

CODLING  MOTH,  THE 

COPPER  CARBONATE,  AMMONIACAL  SOLUTION  OF 

COPPER  SULPHATE 

CORDILLACRIS  OCCIPITALIS  

GRIDDLE  MIXTURE 

CROWN  GALL  

CRUDE  PETROLEUM  

CURRANT  APHIS,  THE 

CURRANT  COTTONY  SCALE 

CURRANT  FLIES , 

CURRANT  LEAF-HOPPER 

CURRANT  SAW-FLY,  NATIVE 

CURRANT  STEM-BORER,  THE 

CURRANT  THRIPS 

DISEASES,  ARTIFICIAL  USE  OF 

DISSOSTEIRA  CAROLINA 

ECCENTRIC  SCALE  OR  PUTNAM’S  SCALE 

EMULSION,  KEROSENE 

ENCHOPTOLOPHUS  SORDIDUS 

FLAT-HEADED  APPLE  TREE-BORER 

Distribution  and  Occurrence  in  Montana 

Life  History 

Natural  Enemies  * 

Methods  of  Control 

FUNGICIDES 

GOAT-HEADED  GRASSHOPPER 

GOOSEBERRY  FRUIT-WORM 


Page. 
. . 252 

. . 242 

233-236 


250 

237 

255 

237 

224 

254 

242 

242 

243 

245 

245 

247 

248 

250 

267 

268 

237 

241 

259 

223 

258 

258 

257 

258 

257 

258 

258 

241 

237 

253 

262, 

223 

238 

251 

225 

225 

226 

226 

261 

237 

259 

’INDEX. 


273 


Page. 

GOOSEBERRY  MILDEW 260 

GRASSHOPPER  EGGS 234 

GRASSHOPPERS 232,  254 

Injury  Not  Caused  by  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust 233 

Life  History 233 

Montana’s  Most  Common  and  Destructive  Species 235 

Insect  Enemies  of  Grain 238 

Remedies 239 

Criddel  Mixture 241 

HELLEBORE 262 

HIPPISCUS  NEGLECTUS 236 

HYDROCYANIC  ACID  GAS 264 

HYPERASPIS  5-SIGNATA 218 

INSECTICIDES 261 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 249 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  CHERRY 255 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  PEACH 255 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  PLUMS  AND  PRUNES 255 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  STRAWBERRY 256 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY 256 

KEROSENE 222 

KEROSENE  EMULSION 262 

LEAF-HOPPERS 251 

LEPIDOSAPHES  ULMI 209 

LESSER  MIGRATORY  LOCUST 236 

LIME,  SULPHUR,  SALT  SOLUTION  263,  211,  230 

LIVER  OF  SULPHUR 268 

MEALY  BUG  ON  APPLE  AND  PEAR 253 

MELANOPLUS,  SPRETUS 233 

MELANOPLUS  BIVITTATUS 236 

MELANOPLUS  ATLANIS ’ ’ 233,  236 

MELANOPLUS  DAWSONI 337 

MELOIDAE 339 

NATIVE  CURRANT  SAW-FLY 257 

OYSTER-SHELL  BARK-LOUSE,  THE 209,  252 

Food  Plants * 209 

Life  History  and  Habits. 209 

Remedy 211 

Experiment  with  Lime,  Sulphur  and  Salt  Wash,  as  a Remedy 211 

PARIS  GREEN .’ 261 

PEACH  TREE  BORER,  THE 255 

PEACH  TWIG-BORER 255 

PEAR  BLIGHT  OR  FIRE  BLIGHT 260 


274 


INDEX. 


Page. 

PEAR-LEAF  BLISTER-MITE,  THE  228,  254 

Nature  of  Injury 228 

Life  History 229 

Means  of  Distribution 229 

Remedies 229 

PEAR  SCAB 260 

PEAR  SLUG,  THE 254 

PHYTOPTUS  PYRI 228 

PLOWING 239 

PLUM  APHIS 256 

PLUM  CURCULIO 256 

PLUM  GOUGER 255 

POTASSIUM  SULPHIDE 268 

PUTNAM’S  SCALE  INSECT 253 

RED-HUMPED  APPLE  TREE  CATERPILLAR 249 

ROUND-HEADED  APPLE  TREE-BORER 251 

SAN  JOSE  SCALE 252 

SARCOPHAGA  CIMBICIS 238 

SCURFY  BARK  LOUSE 253 

SOAP  262 

SPHARAGEMON  AEQUALE 237 

STRAWBERRY  CROWN-BORER 257 

STRAWBERRY  LEAF-ROLLER 256 

STRAWBERRR  ROOT  WEEVIL 257 

SULPHATE  OF  COPPER 268 

SULPHIDE  OF  POTASSIUM 268 

SULPHUR-SALT-LIME  SOLUTIONS 263 

SWIFT,  WM.  H., 261 

TARNISHED  PLANT  BUG,  THE 256^ 

TENT,  CATERPILLAR 249 

TMETOCERA  OCELLANA  201 

TOAD,  THE  COMMON 242 

Amount  of  Food  the  Toad  Eats 247 

False  Ideas  Concerning 242 

Feeding  Habits 245 

Length  of  Life 245 

Life,  History  and  Habits 243 

TWO-SPOTTED  LADY  BUG 220 

TWO-STRIPED  LOCUST 236 

WEB-WORM 251s 

WHALE-OIL  SOAP 263 

WOOLLY  APHIS  OF  THE  APPLE 252 

YELLOW-WINGED  LOCUST 236 


BULLETIN  No.  5a, 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

Experiment  Station, 


OF  THE 


Agricultural  College  of  Montana. 


SUGAR  BEETS 


Bozeman,  Montana,  April,  1904. 


REPUBLICAN, 
Bozeman,  Montana, 

• 003. 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL 

Kxperiment  Station. 

BOZEnAN,=MONTANA. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor,  ^ 

James  Donovan,  Attorney-General,  v Ex-Officio Helena 

W.  W.  Welch,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  ) 

J,  M.  Evans, Missoula. 

C.  R.  Leonard, Butte. 

N.  W.  McConnell, Helena. 

W.  M.  Johnston Billings. 

O.  P.  Chisholm Bozeman. 

J.  G.  McKay, Hamilton. 

G.  T.  Paul, Dillon. 

N.  B.  Holter, Helena. 


EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 

Walter  S.  Hartman,  President 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary, 

E.  B.  Lamme, 

John  Maxey 

John  Robinson,  


Bozeman. 
Bozeman. 
Bozeman. 
. Bozeman 
Bozeman. 


STATION  STAFF. 

*Samuei^  Fortier,  Ma.  E., Director  and  Irrigation  Engineer. 

P.  B.  Linfield,  B.  S.  a, Vice-Director  and  Agriculturist. 

IF.  W.  Traphagen,  Ph.  D.,  P.  C.  S., Chemist. 

*J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D., Botanist. 

R.  A.  Cooley.  B . Sc Entomologist. 

V.  K.  Chesnut Chemist. 

R.  W.  Fisher,  B.  S., Assistant  Horticulturist 

Edmund  Burke .Assistant  Chemist. 

W.  J.  Elliott,  B.  S.  A Assistant  Dairyman 

*Absent  on  leave. 

•{•Resigned,  September,  1903. 

Postoffice,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 

All  communications  for  the  Experiment  Station  should  be  addressed  to 

THE  DIRECTOR, 

MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 


Notice. — The  Bulletins  of  the  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to  any  citizen  of 
Montana  who  sends  his  name  and  address  to  the  Station  for  that  purpose. 


Montana  Experiment  Station. 

BULLETIN  NO.  52.  = = APRIL,  1904. 


Sugar  Beets 


THe  Crop  of  1903 


F.  W.  TRAPHAGEN 

In  presenting  the  results  of  the  investigation  of  the  past  year,  but 
few  comments  are  necessary. 

It  has  repeatedly  been  shown  that  all  the  conditions  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a successful  beet  sugar  factory  could  be  found  in  several 
localities  in  the  state;  yet  for  some  reason  Montana,  abundantly  able 
to  produce  all  the  sugar  consumed'  by  her  citizens,  and  much  more, 
still  obtains  her  supply  from  other  sources. 

Other  states  similarly  located  are  increasing  the  number  of  their 
factories  annually,  and  all  who  have  embarked  in  the  enterprise,  both 
farmers  and  manufacturers,  are  greatly  pleased  with  the  results. 

In  the  face  of  the  passage  of  the  Cuban  Reciprocity  Act,  which 
has  been  the  bugbear  ol  the  beet  sugar  men,  the  price  agreed  upon  in 
Colorado  for  the  crop  of  1904  is  five  dollars  a ton,  a marked  advance 
over  the  price  of  former  years. 

Montana  producers  could  count  with  absolute  certainty  upon 
yields  at  least  as  great  as  those  of  other  states,  and  the  richness  and 


4 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


purity  of  the  product  could  be  maintained  above  the  usual  standard 
with  no  difficulty;  while,  with  intelligent  care  in  culture,  these  ligures 
could  be  inuch  improved.  This  is  no  mere  idle  spe3ulation,  but  is  the 
conclusion  forced  upon  all  who  study  the  reports  of  the  experiments 
carried  on  under  the  supervision  of  the  Chemical  department  of  the , 
Montana  Experiment  Station  during  the  last  half  dozen  years. 

Of  our  neighboiing  states,  Utah  has  four  factories,  with  a capacity 
for  handling  2,300  tons  of  beets  per  day;  Colorado,  nine  factories,  with 
a capacity  of  6,250  tons  daily;  Washington,  one  factory,  >vith  a capacity 
of  350  tons;  and  Idaho,  one  factory,  capacity,  600  tons. 

The  world’s  production  of  sugar  in  1902  amounted  in  round  num- 
bers to  8,500,000  long  tons,  of  which  about  5,800,000  tons,  approxi- 
mately 60  per  cent.,  was  beet  sugar. 

The  consumption  of  sugar  in  the  United  States  amounts  to 
approximately  2,250,000  long  tons,  about  26  per  cent,  of  the  world’s 
entire  production. 

These  2,250,000  long  tons  of  2,240  pounds  are  equal  to  2,520,000 
tons  of  2,000  pounds  each,  as  figured  in  all  American  calculations. 

Assuming  that  the  average  product  of  each  beet  sugar  factory 
erected  in  the  United  States  is  5,000  tons,  it  would  require  500  such 
factories  to  meet  this  home  demand.  Assuming  that  the  present 
established  beet  sugar  factories  and  the  cane  mills  of  the  South  now 
produce  500,000  tons — too  high  an  estimate — it  would  still  require  400 
more  factories  to  provide  for  our  home  consumption. 

The  average  annual  increase  of  consumption  is  6 per  cent.,  or 
151,000  tons.  To  meet  this  increase  alone  there  would  be  required  to 
be  erected  each  yeae  30  factories  of  this  capacity,  say  500-600  tons  of 
beets  per  day. 

To  PAY  FOR  THIS  SUGAR  NOW  IMPORTED  WE  ARE  SENDING  ABROAD 
ANNUALLY  NEARLY  $125,000,000. 

The  American  farmer  is  to-day  raising  wheat  yielding  an  average 
gross  return  of  $10  per  acre,  which  is  being  sent  abroad  to  pay  for 
sugar  which  he  consumes,  while  the  same  lands  on  which  the  wheat  is 
grown  would  produce  the  sugar  and  yield  from  $65  to  $100  per  acre. 

This  is  neither  economy  nor  common  sense. 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


5 


It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that,  in  addition  to  the  54  beet  su^ar 
factories  which  will  be  producing  sugar  during  the  coming  season  of 
1903-4,  nearly  400  new  factories  of  600  tons  capacity  are  still  to  be 
constructed  before  the  actual  home  consumption  of  sugar  and  next 
year’s  increase  is  supplied  from  beets  grown  on  American  farms,  man- 
ufactured by  American  labor,  by  the  investment  of  American  capital. 

No  industry,  agricultural  or  mechanical,  yet  established  or  contem- 
plated, confers  a tithe  of  the  benefits  and  prosperity  upon  the  local 
community  which  has  been  the  invariable  accompaniment  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  beet  sugar  factory. 

None  even  approach  it  in  character,  unless  it  be  the  canning  or 
creamery  plants,  consuming  the  prodncts  of  local  farmers;  and  tliese 
are  insignificant  in  comparison. 

Trade  associations  of  booming  towns,  labor  assiduously  to  secure 
the  location  of  a new  manufacturing  industry  whose  sole  value  to  the 
community  is  the  pay  roll  disbursement  of  a*  few  thousands  per  year. 

To  accomplish  this  they  i3ay  liberal  bonuses  and  grant  exemption 
from  taxation. 

In  contrast  with  all  such  enterprises,  the  beet  sugar  factory  is 
unique  and  unequaled  as  a producer  of  unexampled  prosperity. 

The  location,  in  any  community,  of  a beet  sugar  factory  of  a 
capacity  of  600  tons — the  most  approved  and  economical  unit — means 
the  purchase  of  60,000  tons  of  beets  from  the  farmers  of  the  immediate 
neighborhood,  at  an  average  of  |5  per  ton,  and  a pay  roll  disbursement 
of  $60,000  per  annum — a total  of  $360,000  paid  in  cash  to  such  com- 
munity during  the  fall  and  winter  months. 

The  effect  of  the  distribution  of  this  enormous  sum,  in  addition  to 
the  ordinary  disbursements,  ^may  easily  be  conceived. 

This  amount  distributed  among  the  farmers,  flows  into  every  ave- 
nue of  trade,  leaving  its  profits  behind,  finding  its  way  to  the  banks  to 
be  again  forwarded  on  its  beneficent  mission,  enlivening  and  enriching 
all  branches  of  trade  and  assisting  the  establishment  of  new  indus- 
tries. 

Population  materially  increases;  town  lots  command  a double  price; 
farmii:g  lands  are  in  increased,  demand  at  greatly  increased  prices; 


6 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION 


bank  deposits  are  sometimes  tripled  and  quadrupled;  debts  and  mort- 
gages are  paid  off,  and  new  carriages,  farming  implements  and  pianos 
take  their  places,  and  abundant  prosperity  abounds  everywhere,  and 
civilization  is  advanced. 

This  is  the  simple  history  of  the  industry  wherever  it  has  been 
established  in  a proper  location  for  the  growth  of  beets. 

There  are  but  few  exceptions,  and  should  have  been  none  had  not 
the  zeal  and  ambition  of  the  projectors  overrun  their  judgment  in  the 
establishment  of  a few  plants  in  locations  partially  unfit. 

Recixiizites  for  Locsitioii 

The  following  are  the  essential  requirements  of  location  for  a suc- 
cessful factory:  , 

First:  BEETS,  in  sufficient  quantity  and  of  the  required  sugar 
content  and  purity.  It  is  unprofitable  to  work  beets  containing  less 
than  12  per  cent,  of  sugar,  and  they  should  rather  average  14  per  cent. 
Anything  above  this  average  is  so  much  the  better. 

The  purity  of  the  beet  is  of  equal,  if  not  greater,  importance,  and 
should  be  at  least  80  per  cent,  or  better.  Beets  of  a high  purity  and 
comparatively  low  sugar  content  yield  more  sugar  than  those  of  higher 
sugar  content  and  low  purity. 

By  purity,  or  the  co-efficient  of  purity,  as  it  is  technically  called, 
is  meant  the  ratio  of  the  sugar  to  the  solid  contents  of  the  juice. 

If  in  100  pounds  of  juice  there  are  15  pounds  of  solid  matter,  of 
which  12  pounds  are  sugar,  the  co-efficient  of  purity  is  80  per  cent.,  or 
the  sugar,  12  pounds,  divided  by  the  solid  matters,  15  pounds. 

These  beets  are  then  said  to  contain  12  per  cent,  of  sugar,  with  a 
co-efficient  of  purity  of  80  per  cent. 

The  remaining  three  pounds  contain  all  the  other  mineral  salts 
taken  up  from  the  soil,  and  are  injurious  to  the  extraction  of  the  sugar, 
as  they  are  chiefly  molasses-forming,  or  melassiginic,  as  it  is  termed. 
One  pound  of  these  salts  will  prevent  the  crystallization,  or  invert,  one 
pound  of  sugar. 

To  determine  the  availability  of  the  location,  soil  and  general 
conditions,  extended  experimental  cultivation  should  be  made,  using 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


7 


the  best  seed  and  following  the  most  approved  methods,  having  the 
results  carefully  analyzed  by  the  State  Experiment  Station. 

Careful  analysis  of  the  varying  soils  is  also  an  advantage. 

On  general  principles,  the  acreage  required  for  a plant  of  any 
capacity  should  be  ten  times  the  daily  tonnage  capacity;  for  a 600-ton 
plant,  6,000  acres. 

A trifle  smaller  acreage  in  irrigated  sections  might  suffice,  as  the 
tonnage  product  is  apt  to  be,  with  the  proper  care,  neariy  50  per  cent, 
greater. 

Second:  WATER.  The  water  supply  should  be  at  all  times  ade- 
quate and  not  Subject  to  fluctuations  or  failure,  and  as  free  as  possible 
from  mineral  matter,  for  the  same  reason  as  above  explained  in  refer- 
ence to  the  purity  of  the  beets. 

If  there  be  any  doubt  upon  this  point,  a careful  analysis  should 
be  made. 

At  least  3,000,000  gallons  daily  are  required  for  the  operation  of  a 
600-ton  factory;  and  the  source  of  supply  should  always  be  reasonably 
near  the  factory  site,  to  avoid  excessive  pumping  apparatus  and  oper- 
ating expenses. 

Third:  DRAINAGE.  As  the  above  quantity  of  water  must  be 
discharged  from  the  factory  heavily  contaminated  with  soil  washed 
from  beets,  with  the  waste  lime  and  impurities  removed  from  the  beets 
and  juice  in  the  process  of  refining,  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  flow 
into  any  natural  water  course  used  below  for  domestic  purposes. 

It  should  be  impounded,  if  possible,  in  some  old  depression 
slough,  or  settling  basin,  where  the  water  can  be  allowed  to  drain  off, 
when  the  solid  matter  can  be  used  as  a fertilizer  for  which  it  is  espec- 
ially valuable,  as  it  contains,  in  a concentratel  form,  precisely  the 
salts  taken  from  the  soil. 

These  three  requirements  assured,  there  is  the  most  important  one 
to  mention. 

This  is — 

Fourth:  MONEY.  Without  this  all  the  others  are  valueless  so 
far  as  the  establishment  of  this  industry  is  concerned.  To  construct 
and  properly  equip  a modern  beet  sugar  factory,  the  cost  will  be 
approximately  |1,000  per  ton  of  daily  capacity;  that  is,  a 600-ton 
plant  will  cost  about  $600,000. 


8 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


This  first  cost,  however,  is  variable,  being  subject  to  the  prevailing 
market  rates  for  material  and  labor;  the  freight  rates  to  the  sele:ited 
site;  the  character  of  the  land  in  respect  to  drainage,  water  supply  and 
railroad  connections,  as  well  as  to  the  quality  and  proportions  of  the 
machinery  equipment  and  the  size  and  general  character  of  the  build- 
ings provided. 

The  above  figures  will  apply  to  a perfect  plant  of  liberal  design 
and  ample  proportions  of  both  buildings  and  machinery,  in  which  all 
buildings  shall  be  of  the  most  approved  fire-proof  constrnction. 

Upon  certain  specifications  this  figure  might  be  low,  while  upon 
others  the  price  might  be  too  high. 

It  is  purely  a question  of  what  is  furnished  for  the  price  charged. 

This  does  not  include  the  cost  of  railw^ay  switches,  purchase  of 
seed,  or  agricultural  expenses,  for  which  and  for  a small  working  cap- 
ital, a further  sum  should  be  raised,  varying  with  the  conditions. 

This  amount  of  money  must  be  fully  assured  from  some  reliable 
source  before  it  is  at  all  safe  to  enter  into  any  contract  for  construc- 
tion. 

Factory  Site 

To  the  above  requirements  might  be  added  the  desirable  qualifi- 
cations for  a site  for  the  erection  of  a factory,  viz: 

A practically  level  t'^act,  not  less  than  fifteen  acres  in  extent.  A 
larger  tract  would  be  preferable,  to  proxide  ample  space  for  drainage 
basins,  pulp  pits,  etc. 

The  situation  should  be  as  near  as  possible  to  the  center  of  the 
beet-growing  territory,  and  preferably  near  some  town,  to  provide  res- 
idences for  operatives. 

To  be  on  or  near  a railroad,  preferably  two,  to  assure  the  delivery 
of  coal  and  limestone  at  reasonable  rates;  in  such  a location  that  a 
right-of-way  for  a siding  may  be  obtained. 

There  will  be  required  about  one  mile  of  track  for  switches,  sid- 
ings, and  yard  service. 

Procedure  to  Secure  a Factory 

On  account  of  the  necessity  for  locating  factories  in  the  midst  of 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


9 


the  sugar  beet  fields,  usually  in  farming  communities,  local  capital  is 
either  lacking  or  not  to  be  had  in  sufficient  amount  to  carry  through 
the  enterprise.  Outside  capital  must  gene’^ally  be  secured  for  the 
purpose. 

To  interest  and  obtain  such  assistance,  any  community  must  first 
demonstrate,  by  indisputable  proofs,  that  the  location  proposed  fully 
answers  all  the  requirements  above  enumerated;  but  first  and  fore- 
most, that  it  has  the  necessary  acreage  contracted  for,  or  that  it  can 
certainly  obtain  such  contracts  when  the  other  preliminaries  are 
arranged . 

Having  conclusively  demonstrated  the  adai^tability  of  the  section 
for  the  production  of  beets  rich  in  sugar  and  of  high  purity;  having 
interested  the  farmers  to  a willingness  to  contract  for  the  necessary 
supply  of  beets;  determined  upon  an  advantageous  and  suitable  site,, 
the  next  business  is  the  procurement  of  the  capital. 

Some  considerable  local  capital  must  be  invested  to  inspire  in 
others  confidence  in  the  local  interest,  management  and  support. 

Let  the  most  influential  men  in  the  community  start  a preliminary 
subscription  to  the  capital  stock  of  the  proposed  sugar  company. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  work,  take  the  advice  of  the  best  attor- 
ney in  the  community. 

The  capitalization  of  the  company  should  be  sufficiently  large  to  ■ 
cover  the  cost  of  the  plant  and  at  least  $50,000  additional  for  working 
capital. 

This  may  be  entirely  in  capital  stock,  or  part  stock  and  part 
bonds. 

In  such  communities  there  is  frequently  a prejudice  against  the 
mortgaging  of  the  property  as  security  for  a bond  issue,  which  is  but 
a,  representation  of  such  mortgage  divided  into  smaller  parts. 

This  is  a mistaken  notion  and  contrary  to  the  practice  of  the  best 
financiers  whenever  any  enterprise  will  earn  a larger  amount  in  divi- 
dend than  is  necessary  to  be  paid  in  interest  on  money  hired. 

The  farmer  himself  recognizes  this  principle  when  he  hires  money 
at  5 or  b per  cent,  on  a mortgage  of  his  original  farm  in  order  to 
increase  his  earning  power  far  above  the  interest  charge. 


10 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


To  illustrate  the  difference,  let  us  suppose  a sugar  company  cap- 
italized at  $d00,000  in  stock  alone,  and  the  net  earnings  to  be  20  per 
cent.,  making  $120,000. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  capital  sto3k  were  $300,000,  and  the  other 
$300,000  of  capital  was  realized  on  a bond  issue  of  5 per  cent.,  the 
interest  charge  on  the  bonds  would  be  $15,000,  leaving  $105,000  of  the 
earnings  as  a dividend  on  $300,000  of  stock,  amounting  to  35  per  cent, 
instead  of  20  per  cent.,  as  in  the  other  case. 

As  every  merchant,  trader,  banker,  land  owner  or  farmer  in  the 
community  cannot  fail  to  derive  direct  benefit  from  the  sugar  factory 
enterprise,  all  should  assist  it  by  liberal  subscription  to  the  stock, 
aside  from  the  handsome  dividends  to  be  anticipated  from  such  an 
investment. 

When  $100,000  to  $150,000  has  bsen  assured  by  local  subscription 
or  through  local  influence,  the  company  should  be  legally  incorporated 
and  correspondence  opened  with  some  reliable  construction  company 
or  builder  for  further  advice  or  assistance,  which  most  of  them  are 
able  to  give. 

Cost  o/  Operation 

The  cost  of  the  operation  of  a beet  sugar  factory  is  dependent  in 
a great  measure  upon  the  character,  capacity  and  arrangement  of  the 
machinery  and  apparatus.  Compactness  and  convenience  of  arrange- 
ment are  conducive  to  a saving  of  labor.  The  same  feature,  with 
straight  piping  and  shortest  possible  lines  curtails  friction  and  saves 
fuel.  Ample  capacity,  in  proper  proportions,  with  scientific  by-pass 
arrangements,  avoids  delays  and  difficulties. 

Proper  arrangement  and  connections,  and  proper  utilization  of 
live  and  exhaust  steam,  hot  water  and  wash  waters,  save  labor,  fuel, 
sugar  and  money. 

A well  designed  and  arranged  factory  can  be  easily  operated  by 
175  to  180  men,  in  day  and  night  shifts  of  not  over  90  men  each, 
exclusive  of  the  superintendent. 

For  the  purpose  of  a conservative  estimate,  however,  it  is  set  at 
:200  men. 

The  following  may  be  considered  a safely  reliable  estimate  of 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION 


11 


the  cost  of  operating  a factory,  and  the  probable  returns,  in  Michigan 
or  in  the  Eastern  rainfall  district: 


COST  OF  OPERATION  OF  A 600-TON  FACTORY,  FOR  A 100  DAYS’  CAMPAIGN,  CUTTING 


60,000  TONS  OF  BEETS. 


Total  cost 

Beets,  60,000  tons  (14  per  cent),  at  $5.16 $309,600 

Coal,  20  per  cent  of  beets,  12,000  tons,  at  $2.50  . . 30,000 

Limestone,  8 per  cent  of  beets,  4,800  tons,  at 

$1.50  7,200 

Coke,  12  per  cent  of  limestone,  5.36  tons,  at  $5. . . 2,680 


Per  ton 
of  Beets 
$5.16 


.m 


$349,480 


.12 

.044 


SUPPLIES 


$450 
1,360 
500 
2,000 
1,000 

5, .360  .089 

LABOR 

200  men,  average  $2.25,  100  days 

Superintendent 

Engineer  and  assistants 

Agriculturalist 

Assistants 

Office  help 

General  manager 

PACKING 

44,000  barrels,  at  36c $15,840  15,840  .264 

(Note — In  the  West  this  item  would  be  1.32,- 
000  bags  at  8c,  $10,560.) 

INCIDENTALS 


Interest,  $.300,000  bonds,  at  5 per  cent $15,000 

Insurance 2,000 

Taxes  (?) 2,000 

Repairs 10,000 

Dead  season  help 5,000 

Miscellaneous 10,000 


44,500  .74 

The  generally  accepted  average  extraction  of  ^sugar  in  factories 
without  a molasses  process  is  71  per  cent,  of  the  sugar  content  of  the 
beets. 


. $45,000 
. .3,600 

. 2,000 
. 2,400 

. 2,000 
. 3,000 

. 2,500 

60,500  1.008 


Sulphur,  20,000  lbs,,  at  .0234c 

Filter  cloths,  8,000  yards  at  17c  . . . , 

Oils,  2,000  gallons,  at  25c 

Chemicals  (average  of  all  factories) 
Miscellaneous 


12  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


Assuming  the  Michigan  beets  to  contain  an  average  of  14  per 
cent,  of  sugar,  the  returns  in  such  case  would  be  71  per  cent,  of  14  x^er 
cent.,  or  9.94  per  cent.,  equivalent  to  198.8  jDounds  of  sugar,  say  200 
pounds. 


RECAPITULATION 

Returns,  13,200,000  pounds,  sold  at  cents  . 
Expenses,  as  per  list  above 

Anticipated  profit 


Per  ton 

Total 

Beets 

. 8595,000 

89.90 

. 475,680 

7.925 

.8118,320 

81.975 

It  must  be  understood  that  these  figures  are  based  on  the  cutting 
of  60,000  tons  of  beeis  during  the  canijiaign  of  100  days. 


A reduction  of  the  supply  of  beets  would  cause  an  increase  in  the 
prox^ortionate  expense  of  operation. . 


These  figures  might  be  somewhat  varied  in  either  direction, 
according  to  the  varying  conditions  of  quality  and  quantity  of  beets 
and  by  the  varying  circurnstaces  of  competition  in  securing  acreage  by 
factories  covering  closely  adjacent  territory. 


In  the  irrigated  sections  of  the  West,  the  result  is  much  more 
satisfactory.  The  tonnage  per  acre  being  nearly  or  quite  50  per  cent, 
greater,  the  farmers  actually  receive  more  money  per  acre  on  a flat 
price  per  ton,  and  by  reason  of  the  higher  sugar  content  of  the  beets, 
the  extraction  of  sugar  is  practically  2 x^er  cent,  greater  and  the  x^rofit 
X^er  ton  of  beets  handled  is  quite  $2.50  greater  than  in  the  East,  which 
fact  will  certainly  lead  to  a very  large  development  of  the  industrj^  in 


those  sections. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


13 


Beet  Ctilture 


Oei\er£il  Directions  for  Seeding  stnd  Cultivating' 

There  is  no  agricultural  product  from  which  the  industrious 
farmer  may  derive  so  many  advantages  as  from  the  sugar  beet.  Sugar 
beet  raising  gives  the  farmer  many  times  the  profit  that  could  be 
derived  from  any  other  crop,  while  it  does  not  interfere  with  other 
crops;  but,  on  the  contrary,  by  improving  the  condition  and  capacity 
of  the  soil,  owing  to  continued  and  superior  cultivation,  produces 
better  grain  crops,  besides  permitting  the  growing  of  other  high-cul- 
ture plants  and  vegetables  which  could  not  be  grown  profitably  here- 
tofore. 

MetHod  of  Growing'  Beets 

It  is  difficult  to  lay  dowm  general  directions  and  rules  for  growing 
sugar  beets  applicable  to  all  localities  and  conditions.  Often  expert 
sugar  beet  growers,  at  public  meetings  and  through  the  agricultural 
press,  give  minute  directions  covering  all  the  details  of  this  intricate 
process. 

Others,  each  well  versed  in  the  process  of  growing  sugar  beets, 
get  into  arguments  and  disputes  as  to  the  right  method.  In  such 
cases  each  may  be  correct  in  a measure.  The  occasion  for  such  dis- 
agreements lies  in  the  fact  that  each  person  has  in  mind  the  right 
method  for  a particular  locality  or  set  of  conditions.  A careful  study 
of  the  different  sections  of  the  United  !S tales  where  sugar  beets  are 
grown  will  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  no  single  road  to  suc- 
cess in  growing  sugar  beets.  Every  locality  has  settled  conditions 
which  will  materially  modify  any  set  of  methods  that  might  apply  to 
some  other  one.  There  are  some  settled  rules,  of  course,  but  to  a great 
extent  the  various  agricultural  districts  of  this  country  will  have  to 
work  out  each  for  itself  the  right  method.  The  person  who  argues 
that  the  ground  must  be  i^lowed  in  the  fall,  in  order  to  receive  the 
benefit  of  the  winter  frost,  is  not  offering  any  argument  to  the  Pacfic 
coast,  for  instance,  where  many  beets  are  grown. « And  he  who  insists 
that  the  ground  should  be  rolled  in  all  instances  after  planting,  will 
hazard  the  crop  if  his  directions  are  followed  in  many  parts  of 
Nebraska  and  other  sections  where  the  soil  is  sandy  and  there  are 


14 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


strong  winds.  In  such  cases  a smooth  surface  offers  an  excellent 
opportunity  for  the  wind  to  carry  along  the  sharp  grains  of  sand,  cut- 
ting off  the  plants  and  destroying  the  crop. 

There  can  be  no  general  fixed  rules  regarding  the  kinds  and  appli- 
cation of  fertilizers.  General  principles  are  all  right  when  accom- 
panied by  the  reasons  underlying,  but  must  always  be  modified  to 
meet  local  conditions. 

With  the  development  of  the  industry  in  all  sections  which  have 
the  necessary  conditions,  and  the  acquirement  of  ample  experience 
both  by  the  farmers  in  the  production  of  beets,  and  by  the  manufac- 
turers in  the  making  of  sugar,  there  will  come  many  improvements 
and  eventually  a cheapening  of  production,  a result  of  great  import- 
ance to  all  concerned  in  the  success  of  the  industry,  because  eventually 
the  beet-sugar  industry  of  the  United  States  will  have  to  meet  a 
sharper  competition  with  foreign  producers. 

There  are  some  things  settled,  however,  about  growing  sugar 
beets.  It  will  be  generally  conceded  that  the  ground  should  be  plowed 
deep,  and  in  most  instances  sub-soiled.  Before  the  seed  is  planted 
the  ground  must  be  thoroughly  pulverized  by  harrowing  and  by  roll- 
ing, even  if  the  surface  has  to  be  afterwards  roughened.  Advantage 
must  be  taken  of  the  general  and  prevalent  rain  conditions.  The 
ground  must  be  moist  enough  to  germinate  the  seed,  either  by  rain- 
fall or  irrigation.  In  some  localities  either  is  used,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. Seeds  are  planted  at  depths  of  from  one-half  to  two 
inches,  according  to  the  prevailing  conditions  in  the  X3articular  local- 
ity. The  beets  must  be  planted  near  enough  together  to  produce  a 
beet  of  certain  size.  This  spacing  depends  again  upon  the  locality 
and  the  nature  and  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  size  and  quality  of  the 
beets  depend  materially  on  the  right  kind  of  spacing.  The  beets  must 
be  thoroughly  cultivated,  hoed,  and  hand  weeded,  because  cultivation 
tends  to  conserve  the  moisture  of  the  soil,  and  clean  fields  permit  fav- 
orable action  of  sun  and  air.  The  sooner  the  beet  is  harvested  after  it 
is  ripe  the  better,  because  further  rainfall  may  start  a new  growth, 
producing  new  lateral  roots,  and  new  leaves,  thus  greatly  reducing  the 
sugar  content  and  lourity  of  the  beets. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


15 


Preparing  tHe  Seed  Bed 

Having  selected  the  land,  give  it  a deejD  plowing  in  the  fall,  if 
possible,  and  follow  by  a sub-soiling,  and  allow  it  to  lay  exjjosed  to  the 
action  of  the  elements  during  the  winter. 

In  the  sx^ring,  the  land  should  be  again  x^lowed  about  eight  inches 
deei:),  after  which  it  should  be  thoroughly  x^ulverized  by  disking,  har- 
rowing and  rolling  or  x^lanking.  It  is  not  necessary  that  all  these 
aiethods  be  used  at  once,  but  enough  of  them  must  be  used  to  accom- 
X)lish  the  end  in  view%  which  is  to  thoroughly  x^ulverize  the  soil. 

Sx^ecial  imx3lements  are  being  constantly  devised  to  accomx^lish 
tlds,  and  all  the  ox^erations  in  beet  cultivation,  harvesting,  and  tox3- 
pmg. 

Seed 

So  far,  almost  the  entire  quantity  of  seed  used  in  this  country 
comes  from  Eurox^e,  that  from  Grermany  axDX^earing  to  be  best  adax^ted 
to  our  conditions  and  to  x^roduce  the  best  results. 

There  is  some  choice  to  be  exercised  in  this  regard.  The  sugar 
companies  usually  furnish  their  farmers  with  seed,  taking  x^ay  in 
beets. 

Not  less  than  15  x^o^nds  of  seed  to  the  acre  should  be  used  to 
insure  a full,  even,  and  regular  stand.  Unless  the  stand  be  good, 
there  will  be  many  bare  sxoaces,  greatly  reducing  the  yield. 

A disposition  to  economize  seed  or  to  make  the  amount  furnished 
cover  a larger  acreage  will  be  found  to  be  false  economy  and  should 
not  be  attemx^ted. 

Pleinting' 

The  seed  should  be  sown  with  a drill  made  for  the  x^^H^ose,  in 
rows  eighteen  inches  apart,  or  of  sufficient  width  to  allow  of  the  x^as- 
sage  of  a horse  when  cultivating. 

When  irrigation  is  x^racticed,  seed  is  preferably  sown  in  ridges 
about  twenty  inches  ax^art  to  allow  for  irrigation  between  the  rows  so 
as  not  to  burn  the  leaves. 

The  seed  should  be  planted  from  one-half  to  one  and  one-half 
inches  deex3,  depending  ux)on  the  moisture  in  the  soil;  the  shallower 
the  planting,  the  more  vigorous  will  be  the  plant.  The  fear  that  the 


16 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


plant  may  die  for  lack  of  moisture  is  unfounded,  as  the  sprouted  seed 
sends  down  a long  root  to  the  depth  of  several  inches,  and  later  even 
to  two  or  more  feet,  from  which  the  beet  derives  moisture  and  suste- 
nance. 

It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  sugar  in  the  beet  is 
derived  entirely  from  the  air  and  sunshine,  consequently  the  tops 
should  have  ample  space  in  which  to  secure  all  the  benefit  from  these 
sources.  The  increase  in  sugar  content  will  more  than  make  good  the 
decreased  tonnage,  although  growing  and  breathing  space  will  nof 
necessarily  tend  to  decrease  tonnage. 

Planting  should  not  be  done  until  the  ground  becomes  warm  witk 
a probability  of  settled  weather  conditions,  say  in  May  in  the  rainfall 
districts.  In  the  irrigated  districts  this  must  depend  upon  the  gen- 
eral conditions;  in  some  places  planting  may  be  done  from  December 
to  June.  In  Montana,  in  May  or  early  June. 

Germination 

The  seed  will  germinate  in  about  a week  after  planting  if  the 
weather  and  soil  conditions  are  favorable. 

Care  should  be  taken  during  this  period  that  the  ground  does  not 
become  baked;  if  this  occurs,  the  farmer  should  know  how  to  over- 
come the  difficulty  with  a harrow.  / 

BtincHing  and  TKinning 

When  the  plant  has  three  or  four  leaves  the  bunching  must  be 
done. 

This  is  done  by  passing  down  the  row  and,  with  a stroke  of  the 
hoe,  cutting  out  a part  of  the  plants  the  width  of  the  hoe,  leaving 
bunches  from  6 to  10  inches  apart. 

After  bunching,  or  when  it  is  fairly  under  way,  the  thinning 
should  be  begun. 

This,  U13  to  this  time,  has  been,  and  probably  always  will  be,  done 
by  hand,  laborers  crawling  along  the  rows  and  removing  from  each 
bunch  all  except  the  most  thrifty  plants.  These  plants  should  be  left 
about  six  inches  apart  in  good,  rich  soil,  or  up  to  ten  or  twelve  inches 
in  poor  or  thinner  soil. 

This  is  quite  the  most  important  operation  connected  with  beet 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


17 


growing,  as  its  iDroper  performance  has  a great  influence  upon  yield, 
both  in  tonnage  and  sugar.  The  vigor  of  the  plant  depends  upon  its 
being  done  at  the  right  time,  governing  the  size  of  the  beets,  while 
spacing  to  the  proper  distances  apart  has  an  important  influence  upon 
the  sugar  percentage. 

The  aim  of  the  farmer  should  not  be  to  grow  large  beets,  which 
run  to  fibre  and  are  low  in  sugar,  while  small  beets  are  more  expensive 
to  handle.  Beets  weighing  from  one  to  two  pounds  are  by  far  the 
best  for  the  farmer  and  the  factory. 

Cultivating 

The  first  cultivation  is  performed  in  the  bunching  and  thinning, 
when  the  laborer  jDresses  the  dirt  firmly  around  the  beet  i^lant  and 
removes  whatever  grass  or  weeds  may  be  present. 

After  this  the  weeds  should  be  hejA  down  and  the  ground  kept 
loose  and  pulverized,  w’hich  can  be  done  by  hoeing  or  horse  cultiva- 
tion, using  any  of  the  implements  made  for  such  purpose.  This 
should  be  done  as  often  as  needed,  three  times  generally  being  suffi- 
cient, or  until  the  plants  are  large  enough  to  shade  the  ground,  when 
work  among  them  with  plow  and  horse  would  break  off  the  leaves. 

Irrigation 

Where  irrigation  is  practiced  the  farmer  has  an  opportunity  to 
control  the  growth  of  the  beet  and  the  development  of  its  sugar  to  a 
much  greater  degree  than  is  possible  in  the  humid  sections. 

In  general,  the  rules  of  irrigation  as  applied  to  other  crops,  may 
be  successfully  used  with  sugar  beets.  It  would  be  well,  however,  in 
order  to  secure  a greater  downward  growth  of  the  beets,  to  withhold 
the  application  of  water  in  each  case  until  the  leaves  begin  to  turn 
yellow.  In  this  way  the  disproportion  of  tops  to  the  rest  of  the  root 
may  be  reduced  and  the  proportion  of  sugar  corresi^ondingly  increased. 
It  is  also  advisable  to  avoid  very  late  irrigations. 

Harvesting 

When  one  is  accustomed  to  sugar  beet  fields,  it  is  easy  to  deter- 
mine when  they  are  ripe.  This  point  is  usually  determined,  however, 
by  analysis  to  ascertain  the  sugar  content  and  purity  of  the  beets. 


IS 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


After  the  growth  of  the  top  and  root  and  cultivation  ceases,  the 
beets  begin  to  store  up  sugar  through  the  leaves,  and  the  sugar  and 
the  purity  increases  as  they  approach  maturity. 

When  a field  of  beets  is  ripe,  the  leaves  tend  to  droop  and  the 
whole  field  takes  on  a yellow  appearance,  which  cannot  be  mistaken 
by  one  accustomed  to  deciding  the  period  of  ripeness. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  harvesting  plows,  beet  pullers  and 
toppers,  many  of  which  have  lately  been  patented,  from  which  a satis- 
factory implement  may  be  chosen. 

Having  been  loosened  by  either  of  the  ordinary  machines,  labor- 
ers follow,  throwing  the  beets  in  piles. 

Topping 

This  is  done  by  laborers  with  a sharp  knife,  made  esioecially  for 
the  purpose,  striking  a quick,  sharp  blow,  cutting  off  the  top  square 
across  as  low  as  the  lowest  leaf  stem.  The  beets  are  thrown  into  large 
piles  and  the  tops  plowed  under  or  used  for  fodder. 

The  topping  is  a very  particular  and  important  operation. 

The  sloping  crown  of  the  beet  bearing  the  leaf-stems  contains 
much  the  larger  proportion  of  the  mineral  salts  in  the  vegetable, 
which  are  very  objectionable  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  every  j^ound 
of  such  salts  preventing  a pound  of  sugar  from  crystallizing. 

Beets  not  topi3ed  properly  are  re-topped  by  the  agricultural 
department  of  the  factory  and  the  difference  in  percentage  of  weight, 
calculated  on  the  samj^les,  is  deducted  as  tare. 

In  climates  where  there  is  no  danger  of  wet  or  freezing  weather, 
the  roots  may  be  left  on  the  ground  unharvested  for  a long  time. 

Siloing 

While  beets  should  be  harvested  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe,  to  avoid 
the  deteriorating  effects  of  frost  or  rain,  yet  not  all  beets  can  be  deliv- 
ered to  the  factory  at  the  same  time.  The  [beet  sheds  have  not  suffi- 
cient capacity.  Many  companies  require  that  a certain  portion  of  the 
beets  shall  be  siloed  in  the  fields  where  they  are  grown.  This  is 
accomplished  by  placing  them  in  single  piles  containing  a good  load, 
or  in  long  ricks. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


19 


Plows  are  run  up  and  down  alongside  of  these  ricks  or  piles,  and 
the  soft  dirt  is  thrown  over  the  beets  to  the  depth  of  several  inches. 
Then  hay,  straw  and  beet  leaves  are  thrown  on  top  of  that.  Holes  are 
left  for  ventilation.  Beets  can  be  kept  for  some  time  in  this  manner. 

Freezing  of  the  beets  does  them  no  particular  injury,  and  does 
not  appreciably  diminish  the  sugar  content,  provided  they  can  arrive 
and  be  worked  at  the  factory  before  thawing  out. 

Thawing  after  freezing  reduces  the  amount  of  sugar  and  the  pur- 
ity, and  must  be  guarded  against. 

The  delivery  of  beets  as  well  as  the  specific  instructions  for  grow- 
ing are  regulated  by  the  -agricultural  department  of  the  various  fac- 
tories, and  the  whole  progress  of  the  work  is  usually  supervised  by 
the  skilled  members  of  that  department  emjDloyed  by  the  factory. 

It  is  decidedly  to  the  farmers’  interest  as  well  as  to  that  of  the 
factory  that  such  instructions  should  be  graciously  received  and  care- 
fully followed. 

It  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  farmers 
that  the  interests  of  both  farmer  and  factory  are  identical  and  mutual; 
what  benefits  the  one  adding  to  the  success  of  the  other,  and  no  spirit 
of  antagonism  or  differences  should  be  permitted  to  arise. 


20 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


General  Data  Condensed 


The  amount  of  fuel  required  per  ton  of  beets  varies  from  15  per 
per  cent,  to  21  per  cent.  The  latter  was  the  average  of  Michigan  fac- 
tories for  the  campaign  of  1901-2.  Proj^er  connections,  careful  atten- 
tion to  details  and  skillful  utilization  of  heat  units  and  the  hot  water 
supply  should  keep  the  amount  ai3proximately  at  the  lower  figure. 


The  quantity  of  lime  rock  used  is  about  8 per  cent,  of  the  weight 
of  the  beets  when  using  the  ordinary  milk  of  lime  for  carbonatation. 
Where  the  Saccharate  of  Lime  process  is  used  for  treating  the  molas- 
ses, the  proportion  will  be  from  16  to  20  per  cent. 

The  quantity  of  Coke  is  about  10  to  12  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of 
the  Lime  Rock.  

The  amount  of  Sulphur  used  is  about  200  pounds  per  day;  other 
supplies  about  |50  per  day. 

The  number  of  men  employed,  outside  the  office  force,  in  some  of 
the  factories  is  170  to  180.  In  some  others,  of  the  same  capacity,  250 
are  required. 

The  annual  disbursement  for  labor,  including  office,  will  be  about 
$60,000.  

In  raising  and  harvesting  the  croj)  of  beets  for  the  Michigan  fac- 
tories for  the  campaign  of  1901-2,  there  were  engaged  26,966  men, 
1,844  single  horses,  and  4,834  double  teams  emi^loyed  during  the 
season.  

The  actual  number  of  contractors  raising  beets  for  the  same  fac- 
tories for  that  season  was  16,848.  This  represents  the  same  number 
of  farmer’s  families  and,  on  a basis  of  five  members  to  the  family,  rep- 
resents 84,240  persons  actually  interested  in  the  agricultural  opera- 
tions of  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry  of  Michigan  in  that  year.  Last  year 
these  figures  were  presumably  25  per  cent,  greater. 


Beet  seed  is  purchased  by  the  factories  in  the  month  of  Decern- 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


21 


ber,  distributed  to  the  farmers  in  the  month  of  April  and  paid  for  by 
the  farmers  from  the  sale  of  beets  in  the  fall. 

The  Beet  Sugar  Industry  is  the  agricultural  industry  in  which 
the  farmer  is  able  to  sell  his  crop,  on  a reliable  contract,  at  a fixed 
price,  before  the  seed  is  planted. 

He  is  thus  independent  of  the  action  of  the  law  of  supply  and 
demand,  or  of  the  many  contingencies  of  the  market  on  other  crops  at 
time  of  harvesting.  He  is  not  subjected  to  delays  in  payment  nor 
compelled  to  hold  his  crop  for  a better  market. 


Sugar  beets  will  withstand  a longer  drought  and  also  a more 
excessive  rainfall  than  any  other  known  staple  crop.  The  danger  of 
loss  from  bad  weather  conditions  is  thus  minimized. 

Calculations 

In  making  the  various  calculations  in  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry, 
it  will  be  apparent  that  they  are  approximately  correct  when  expressed 
in  decimal  proportion;  that  is,  the  relation  of  each  to  the  other  is 
expressed  in  some  multiple  of  ten. 

In  the  Eastern  section  the  average  tonnage  per  acre  is  set  at  10 
tons. 

The  acreage  of  beets  to  be  contracted  for  should  be  10  times  the 
daily  capacity. 

The  tonnage  of  beets  worked  is  practically  10  times  the  amount 
of  sugar  which  should  be  extracted. 

The  campaign  is  100  days. 

The  approximate  cost  of  the  completed  plant  is  about  $1,000  for 
each  ton  of  daily  capacity. 

These  estimates  are  sufficiently  near  for  all  practical  purposes. 

Refineries  vs.  Hoxne  = Grown  Sugar 

Eastern  refiners  buy  brown  (raw)  sugar,  produced  from  cane  in 
the  tropics  or  from  beets  in  Europe.  This  sugar  has  had  expended 
upon  its  production  fully  90  j^er  cent,  of  all  the  labor  and  other  cost. 

The  cost  of  refining  is  from  30  to  40  cents  per  100  pounds,  of 


22 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


which  not  exceeding  15  cents  is  for  American  labor. 

This  sugar  is  melted,  reboiled  and  clarified  by  x^assing  through 
bone  black  (animal  charcoal)  and  the  refined  sugar  separated  from  the 
molasses  precisely  as  in  the  Beet  Sugar  jmocess.  In  fact,  the  machin- 
ery is  identical  with  that  in  the  sugar  end  of  the  beet  sugar  factories, 
except  for  the  addition  of  the  char-filters  for  the  necessary  clarifica- 
tion. 

The  xmesent  price,  Ajiril  1,  1903,  of  raw  sugar,  96  degrees  Cen- 
trifugal, landed  in  New  York,  cost  and  freight,  is  2 1-16  cents,  and 
this  all  goes  to  the  foreign  x^roducer. 

The  American  beet  farmer  receives  for  one  ton  of  beets  contain- 
ing 11  x^6^  cent,  of  sugar,  in  Michigan,  $5.16.  Ux^on  the  assumxhion 
that  the  factory  is  able  to  extract  from  this  200  x^o^nhs,  the  farmer 
receives  2.58  cents  x^er  for  the  sugar  still  in  the  beets,  in  the 

shed,  upon  which  all  labor  and  factory  expense  must  be  expended. 

The  duty  on  raw  sugar  x^olarising  96  degrees  is  $1.68^  per  100 
xiounds. 

The  cost,  duty  paid,  is  about  3f  cents  x^ei* 

THe  Ftittire 

It  is  estimated  that  in  1910,  the  amount  of  sugar  required  for 
consuinx^tion  in  the  United  States,  above  that  x^i*oduced  from  home- 
grown cane,  will  be  3,000,000  tons. 

Eurox^e,  with  much  less  available  beet  area,  x^roduced  in  1900, 
5,950,000  tons  of  beet  sugar. 

To  x^roduce  3,000,000  tons  of  beet  'sugar  annually  would  require 
500  plants,  each  having  a daily  cax^acity  of  600  tons. 

These  plants  would  rex3resent  the  following  investment  and 


annual  business: 

Invested  in  plants 8300, OCX), 000 

Working  capital 50,000,000 

Acres  of  beets 3,000,(X)0 

Valuation  of  land  growing  this  crop 150,000,000 

Tons  of  beets 27,000,000 

Tons  of  sugar 3,000,000 

Value  of  beets 135,000,000 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION 


23 


Annual  pay  roll  for  labor  in  factories 42,000,000 

Tons  of  coal  used 5,500,000 

Tons  of  lime  rock 1,890,000 

Tons  coke 208,000 

Freight  paid  railroads 27,000,000 

Annual  payments,  bags  and  barrels 6,000,000 

Number  of  farmers  raising  beets 750,000 

Men  employed  in  factories 125,000 

Men  employed  raising  beets  during  season 1,200,000 


24 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


Statistical 


Presei^t  Sources  of  World’s  Sugar  Supply 

BEET 


1901 

1900 

1999 

1898 

Germany 

.2,270,000 

1,979,098 

1,798,631 

1,721,718-^ 

Austria  

.1,250,000 

1,094,013 

1,108,007 

1,051,290' 

Prance  

,1,200,000 

1,170,332 

977,850 

830,132 

Russia 

. . 1,050,000 

920,000 

905,737 

776,066 

Belgium 

. 350,000 

340,000 

302,865 

244,017 

Holland 

. 190,000 

178,081 

171,029 

140,763 

Other  European  Countries 

. 400,000 

387,440 

253,929 

209,115 

Total  foreign 

, .6,710,000 

6,068,994 

5,518,048 

4,982,101 

United  States 

. 150,000 

76,859 

72,944 

32,471 

Total  beet 

.6,860,000 

6,145,853 

5,590,990 

5,590.572: 

CANE 

Cuba 

875,000 

635,856 

308,540 

345,260 

Java 

. 765.000 

710,120 

721.993 

689,281 

Brazil 

. 215,000 

190,000 

192,700 

154.495 

Mauritius 

. 145,000 

175,267 

157,025 

186,487 

Australia 

. 117,000 

111.554 

123,289 

192,247 

Argentine  Republic 

. 115,000 

114,252 

91,507 

72,000 

Peru 

. 105,000 

105,000 

100,381 

61,910 

Other  Foreign  Countries.. 

. 753,000 

731,880 

681,219 

748,926 

Total  Foreign  Cane 

.3,090,000 

2,773,929 

2,376,654 

2,450,606 

United  States: 

Louisiana 

. 290,000 

275,000 

132,000 

245,511 

Porto  Rico 

. 100,000 

80,000 

35,000 

53,826 

Hawaiian  Islands 

. 300,000 

321,461 

258,520 

252,507 

Philippine  Islands 

. 70.000 

52,000 

62,875 

93,000 

Total,  U.  S.  and  posses- 

sions 

. 760,000 

728,461 

488,305 

644,844 

Total  cane 

.3,850,000 

3,502,390 

2,864,959 

3.095,450 

Total  Cane  and  Beet 

10,710,000 

9,648.243 

8,455,951 

8,110,022 

To  illustrate  the  comparative  growth  of  the  beet  sugar  industry 
in  the  United  States  and  Europe,  the  following  table  will  be  interesting: 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


25 


Beet  iSugar  Production 


United  States. 

Europe. 

United  States. 

Europe. 

(Tons.) 

(Tons.) 

(Tons.) 

(Tons.) 

1870 

400 

899,600 

1892 

12,018 

3,442,198 

1872 

' 500 

1,018,500 

1893 

19.550 

3,889,845 

1878 

200 

1,418,800 

1894 

20,092 

4,790,532 

1880 

500 

1,747,500 

1895 

29,220 

4,285,429 

1883 

535 

2,146,470 

1896 

37,536 

4,916,498 

1884 

953 

2,574,047 

1897 

40,399 

4,831,774 

1886 

800 

2,732,200 

1898 

32,471 

4,982,101 

1888 

1,010 

2,724,000 

1899 

72,944 

5,518,048 

1890 

2,800 

3,707,200 

1900 

76,859 

6,068,994 

1891 

5,359 

3,501,920 

1901 

150,000 

6,710,000 

Detailed  Su.ppl:>^  of  tHe  United  States,  IQOl 


DOMESTIC 

Cane 

Beet 

Molasses  Sugar 

Maple 

12.4  per  cent. 
5.2  per  cent. 
.7  per  cent. 
.2  per  cent. 

439,986  tons. 

18.5  per  cent. 

FROM 

INSULAR  POSSESSIONS,  CANE 

Hawaii 

Porto  Rico 

Philippine  Islands 

309,070  tons. 

13.2  per  cent. 
2.7  per  cent. 
.2  per  cent. 

Total  from  Insular  possessions 380,449  tons. 

16.1  per  cent. 

Total,  Domestic  and 
sions 

Insular  posses- 

34.6  per  cent. 

FOREIGN 

Cane 

Beet 

Refined  

1,292,080  tons. 

217,286  tons. 

54.6  per  cent. 

9.6  per  cent. 

1.7  per  cent. 

Total  Foreign 

1,551,881  tons. 

65.4  per  cent. 

Grand  Total 

2,372,316  tons. 

100.0  per  cent. 

A.verage  Increase  in  Total  Consumption  Per  Year  for 

Twenty  Years 

France 6.18  per  cent.  England 3.50  per  cent. 

Germany 6.91  per  cent.  United  States 6. 94  per  cent. 

Austria 4.65  per  cent. 


26  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


Sugar  Consumption,  Dominion  of  Canada,  IQOO,  WitK 
Sources  of  Supply 


Raw 

United  Kingdom 
and  British  pos- 
sessions, Tons. 
11,020 

Imported  from 
United  States 
Possessions  and 
Dependencies, 

Tons. 

2,689 

Other 

Cane 

Tons. 

3 

other 

Beet 

Tons. 

112,613 

Total 

Tons. 

126,325 

Refined . . 

1,238 

12,265 

1,684 

1,247 

16,434 

12,258 

14,954 

1,687 

113,860 

142,795 

It  will  be  seen  that  more  than  75  per  cent,  of  the  total  supply  in 
Canada  was  from  su^^ar  beets. 


The  customs  duties  in  Canada  are  7IJ  cents  per  100  pounds  on 
raw  sugar,  (96  degrees,  Centrifugal)  and  $1.20  on  refined  sugar,  against 
$1.68^  and  $1.95  respectively  in  the  United  States.  This  duty  should 
be  materially  increased  before  the  production  of  beet  sugar  can  attain 
any  considerable  development. 

Having  had  an  opportunity  during  the  last  few  months  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  conditions  in  Colorado,  I will  give  some  data 
showing  what  the  establishment  of  a factory  means  to  a community. 

Covelstnd,  Colo. 

The  Loveland  factory  is  said  to  employ  400  men  and  boys  during 
th©  sugar  making  season,  the  payroll  being  about  $25,000  per  month, 
or  for  the  120  days,  or  four  months,  of  the  factory  campaign,  about 
$100,000. 

About  35  of  the  skilled  factory  employes,  the  office  force,  the 
agricultural  superintendent  and  his  corps  of  assistants,  are  employed 
the  year  round,  representing  a payroll  for  the  eight  months  during 
which  the  factory  is  idle,  of  about  $4,000  per  month,  or  about  $82,000, 
making  the  annual  pay  roll  about  $132,000. 

The  local  beet  growing  industry,  following  the  erection  of  the 
Loveland  factory,  has  resulted  in  the  immigration  into  the  district  of 
about  1,500  laborers,  old  and  young,  who  came  to  Colorado  from 
Nebraska, 

The  wages  x^aid  in  the  beet  fields  for  ordinary  common  labor,  doing 
hand-work,'  range^fronC$1.50^to  $2.50  x^er  day,  if  reckoned  that  way,  but 
the  field  laborers  generally  contract  to  do  the  necessary  hand-w’ork, 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


27 


Tiz.,  the  thinning  and  hoeing,  second  and  third  hoeings,  pnlling  and 
topping,  for  $20  per  acre;  father,  mother  and  children  working  on  the 
family  contract. 

Aronnd  Loveland  beets  are  regarded  as  not  merely  a more  i3rofit- 
able  crop  than  wheat  or  other  grain,  or  alfalfa,  or  i3otatoes,  but  as  a 
safer  crop,  as  much  less  liable  to  serions  damage  from  hailstones .7^ 

The  beet  pnlp  produced  by  this  factory  is  sold  to  local  stock  feed- 
ers at  35  cents  per  ton,  being  mainly  used  for  sheep. 

It  has  necessarily  given  cpiite  an  impetus  to  local  stock  feeding. 

The  beet  tops,  left  in  the  fields  after  the  beets  are  harvested,  are 
valuable  either  as  feed  for  cattle  and  sheep,  or  as  a fertilizer  when 
ploughed  under. 

It  is  difficnlt  to  overestimate  the  benefit  of  this  factory  to  the 
Loveland  district.  It  has  already  materially  enhanced  the  market 
value  of  all  farm  lands  within  its  sphere  of  influence;  promoted  diver- 
sified farming;  rotation  of  crops  and  more  intensive  agriculture.  The 
$1,472,000  i^aid  to  local  growers  for  beets  during  the  three  seasons  the 
factory  has  been  in  operation,  has  necessarily  gone^into^general  circu- 
lation and  benefitted  not  merely  the  Loveland  district  in  xjarticnlar, 
but  Colorado  in  general,  in  a variety  of  ways,  insomuch  that  the  con- 
tinued success  of  the  enterx^rise  is,  or  should  be,  a matter  of  interest  to 
every  citizen  of  Colorado. 

Sugar  City,  Colo. 

The  beet  sugar  factory  of  the  National  Sugar  Manufacturing  com- 
pany at  Sugar  City  x^resents  somewhat  different  circumstances  to  the 
other  beet  sugar  factories  in  Colorado. 

Sugar  City  is  situated  fifty-six  miles  east  of  Pueblo  on  the  line^of 
the  Missouri  Pacific  railway,  or  about  160  miles  by  railroad  from 
Denver. 

In  the  sx3ring  of  1899  the  site  of  the  x^resent  Sugar  City  was 
merely  “an  exx3anse  of  x^hiin  and  sky,”  a “round-ux^”  x^oint  for  the  ox^en 
range  cattle  industry,  and  tenanted  by  x^rairie  dogs  and  occasional  coy- 
otes. Sugar  City  was  pncorx^orated  in  June,  1900,  and  to-day  has  a 
X^opulation  of  about  1,500,  with  hotels,  business  houses,  a bank,  a fire 


28 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


department,  a $10,000  school  house  and  a $20,000  water  works  plant’ 
the  bonds  of  which  were  sold  at  x^ar. 

All  this  has  followed  the  erection  in  1899  of  a beet  sugar  factory 
at  Sngar  City  by  the  National  Sugar  Mannfactnring  company. 

It  naturally  took  some  little  time  to  get  the  beet  growing  industry 
started.  The  first  year  the  factory  was  erected  remarkable  progress 
was  made,  considering  the  difficulties  which  had  to  be  overcome.  The 
industry  was  entirely  new  to  that  section.  The  farmers  were  nnfa- 
iniliar  with  the  method  of  raising  the  beets,  laborers  had  to  be  brought 
from  distant  x)laces  and  were  compelled  to  live  in  tents  for  the  greater 
X^art  of  that  year,  and  the  land  was  but  a vast  area  of  new  and  unbroken 
Xjrairie.  Nevertheless,  12,000  tons  of  beets  were  raised  the  first  year- 

A Large  Territory 

The  area  tributary  to  the  factory  extends  along  the  line  of  the 
Missouri  Pacific  railroad,  x^ractically  as  far  as  Pneblo,  taking  in  the 
fionrishing  agricultural  communities  of  Ordway,  Olney,  Fowler,  Baxter, 
Vineland,  etc.,  and  rex3resenting  at  least  50,000  acres  of  irrigable  land. 
The  main  crox^s  of  this  tributary  area,  until  the  advent  of  the  factory, 
were  alfalfa,  grain,  etc.  There  is  not  much  live  stock,  excex^t  on  the 
open  ranges  north  and  south.  There  is  little  dairying  or  x^oultry  rais- 
ing, but  there  are  numerous  orchards,  and  honey  is  shix^x^ed  out  by  the 
carload.  In  the  vicinity  of  Ordway,  about  six  miles  west  of  Sugar  City 
and  the  factory,  the  farms  are  of  good  size,  the  farmhouses  and  out- 
buildings substantial  and  well  x^ainted.  The  farmsteadings  are  invar- 
iably surrounded  by  orchards,  shade  trees,  hay  and  grain  ricks,  and 
usually  also  have  a cluster  of  white  tents,  occuxjied  by  the  laborers  for 
the  beet  fields. 

The  National  Sugar  Manufacturing  comx^any  owns  12,000  acres  of 
land  surrounding  Sugar  City  and  the  factory,  the  Missouri  Pacific 
railway  x^assing  diagonally  through  the  center  of  the  tract.  This  body 
of  land,  which  lies  in  comx^act  form,  is  an  excellent  alluvial  dex^osit  of 
light  loam,  mixed  with  fine  gravel,  yielding  readily  to  the  x^low  and 
easy  of  cultivation. 

Just  north  of  this  area  runs  the  Colorado  canal,  owned  by  the 
Twin  Lakes  Land  and  Reservoir  coinx^any,  from  which  the  whole  of 
the  12,000  acres  of  the  National  Sugar  Manufacturing  company  is  irri- 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


29 


gable.  The  Meredith  lakes  sonth  of  the  town,  have  a circumference  of 
thirteen  miles,  the  volume  of  water  in  which,  though  varying  with  the 
seasons,  never  fails. 

THe  Water  Suppl:>^ 

The  National  Sugar  Manufacturing  company  owns  extensive  water 
rights,  Lake  Henry,  fed  by  means  of  a priority  right  from  the  Arkan- 
sas river  through  the  Colorado  canal  being  the  base  of  siix^i^ly.  In 
other  words,  from  Twin  Lakes,  2,000  acres  in  extent,  with  average 
depth  of  eighty-five  feet,  in  Lake  county,  at  an  altitude  of  9,200  feet, 
the  water  is  carried  in  a natural  canal  to  the  Arkansas  river,  a distance 
of  nine  miles.  Then  down  the  Arkansas  river  for  a distance  of  150 
miles  to  Boone,  east  of  Pueblo,  at  Boone  taken  into  the  Colorado  canal 
and  conveyed  a distance  of  thirty-five  miles  to  Lake  Henry  and  from 
there,  through  a wooden  stave  pipe  to  Sugar  City  and  the  adjoining 
land  of  the  National  Sugar  Manufacturing  coinx^any.  When  the 
Arkansas  river  supply  becomes  short,  as  it  usually  does  during  the 
middle  of  the  summer,  the  headgate  at  Twin  Lakes  is  opened  and  the 
necessary  amount  of  water  liberated,  which  in  about  two  days,  via  the 
Arkansas  river,  the  Colorado  canal  and  Lake  Henry,  is  delivered  for 
irrigation  use  around  Sugar  City. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  great  storage  reservoir  of  Lake  Henry, 
four  miles  northwest  of  Sugar  City,  holds  a vast  volume  of  water  ready 
for  any  emergency  of  threatened  drought. 

It  is  said  that  the  before-mentioned  facilities  jDreclude  shortage  of 
water  around  Sugar  City. 

L’and  Under  Cultivation 

The  company  is  cultivating  a considerable  portion  of  its  12,000 
acres  of  land,  4,000  acres  oeing  devoted  to  beets.  A quantity  of  the 
comx)any’s  land  is  leased  to  other  beet  growers  and  the  remainder  is 
grown  by  the  comx^any  to  alfalfa  and  grain  croj^s  as  a x3recursor  to 
beets. 

The  total  cost  to  the  company  of  handling  its  x^ortion  of  the  12,- 
000  acres  this  season  will  be  about  $250,000,  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
the  exx^ense  being  on  the  4,000  acres  of  beets. 

In  addition,  about  140  beet  growers,  owning  or  leasing  land  along 


30 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION 


the  line  of  the  Missouri  Pacific  railroad,  with  an  average  of  eleven 
acres  of  beets  each,  have  contracted  to  furnish  the  factory  this  season 
with  the  beets  from  about  1,500  acres. 

Taking  the  average  yield  per  acre  at  the  low  estimate  of  ten  tons, 
the  factory  should  slice  from  all  sources  between  40,000  and  50,000 
tons  of  beets  this  season. 

For  beets  which  contain  14  per  cent,  sugar,  the  company  pays  $4 
ton,  allowing  25  cents  extra  per  ton  for  each  1 per  cent,  of  sugar.  The 
average  sugar  contents  are  17^  per  cent,  and  in  some  exceptional  cases 
the  beets  test  as  high  as  21  and  22  per  cent.  The  average  price  the 
growers  receive  is  about  $4.87  per  ton.  Many  of  the  beet  growers 
raise  an  average  of  twelve  tons  to  the  acre,  while  some  raise  as  high  as 
fifteen  and  twenty  tons  per  acre. 


Some  Statistics 


One  grower  near  Ordway  received  from  the  company  for  beets  de- 
livered from  two  and  three-quarters  acres,  $365.39  or  $132.84  per  acre. 
He  did  a large  part  of  the  work  himself,  but  assuming  that  the  value 
of  his  own  labor  and  whatever  other  labor  he  had  to  pay  for  was  $32 
per  acre,  it  still  left  a profit  of  $100  per  acre. 

Another  company  received  from  the  company  about  $2,500  for  the 
beets  from  forty  acres. 

Another  grower,  who  leased  forty  acres  of  the  company’s  land, 
raised  an  average  of  sixteen  tons  per  acre  of  high  quality  and  received 
from  the  factory  therefor  about  $3,000. 

The  cost  of  production  of  an  acre  of  beets  at  Sugar  City  is  conser- 
vatively stated  as  follows: 


Plowing  - 

Irrigating,  winter  (once) 

Irrigating,  summer,  (three  times) 
Harrowing,  (three  times) 

Seed  - - . - 

Seeding  . . - - 

Cultivating  (5  times) 

Bunching  and  thinning,  by  contract  labor 
Hoeing,  by  contract  labor 


$3.50 


.75 

1.00 

.90 

3.00 
.50 

2.00 
6.00 
6.00 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


31 


Pulling  and  topping,  by  contract  labor  - 6.00 

Plowing  np  beets  - - - 2.00 

Hauling  (ten  tons)  - - - 5.00 


Per  acre  _ . _ . $86.65 


It  is  said  that  the  above  figures  can  be  somewhat  reduced  by  less 
cultivating  and  by  the  grower  doing  his  bunching  and  thinning,  hoeing, 
pulling  and  topping  by  the  month.  Even  on  the  above  showing,  a 
I)roduction  of  fifteen  tons  per  acre  means  over  $73  per  acre,  or  a net 
profit  of  nearly  $30  per  acre,  while  at  ten  tons  per  acre  there  is  still  a 
fair  profit  to  the  grower 

Heavy  Pay  Roll 

In  addition  to  the  amount  paid  this  season  by  the  factory  to  in- 
dependent growers  for  beets,  the  company  has  an  annual  payroll  of  be- 
tween $150,000  and  $200,000,  covering  the  190  factory  emx3loyes  dur- 
ing the  sugar  making  season  of  about  120  days,  commencing  October 
1,  the  maintenance  of  the  administration  crops,  about  forty  in  number, 
during^the  other  eight  months  of  the  year,  and  the  force  required  to 
run  that  part  of  the  company’s  12,000  acres  of  land,jiot^n  beets,  oper- 
ated by  the  company.  Further  large  sums  are  expended  in  Colorado 
in  the  purchase  of  coal,  lime  rock,  etc.,  and  in  railroad  freight. 

The  factory  treats  500  tons  of  beets  per  day  during  the  season  and 
produces  120,000  pounds  or  sixty  tons  per  day  of  pure  white  granulat- 
ed sugar  therefrom. 

Its  modus  operand!  of  manufacturing  resembles  that  at  other 
Colorado  factories  sufficiently  to  call  for  no  repeated  descrqDtion  here. 
As  it  stands  to-day,  the  factory  has  cost  api3roximately  $500,000. 

During  the  agricultural  season  the  coinx^any  employs  about  1,000 
persons  old  and  young,  on  the  acreage  of  beets  grown  by  itself,  while 
the  independent  growers  einj^loy  outside  helj)  to  the  number  of  at 
least  500  persons. 

The  usual  price  for  hand  work  is  about  $18  per  acre;  man  and 
two  horse  team  get  $3  per  day,  and  irrigators  $1.75  x^er  day.  One  beet 
worker  received  one  check  for  $900  for  his  personal  contract  labor  from 
May  1 to  November  1.  Many  others  received  amounts  equal  to  this 
for  similar  contracts. 


32 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


Foreign  Labor 

The  bulk  of  this  labor  is  performed  by  people  commonly  known 
as  Russians,  bnt  really  people  of  German  race  and  language  born  in 
Russia.  It  is  said  that  these  German  laborers  around  Sugar  City, 
while  coming  here  from  Nebraska,  came  originally  from  the  jirovinces 
of  Saratov  and  Samara  in  the  valley  of  the  Volga  and  are  descendants 
of  German  emigrants  who  settled  in  that  part  of  Russia  in  the  middle  ? 
of  the  Eighteenth  century.  They  are  said  to  speak  the  German  which  r 
prevailed  over  a century  ago,  like  the  Canadians  of  Lower  Canada 
largely  speak  the  French  which  prevailed  in  France  at  the  time  when  \ 
their  ancestors  emigrated  from  France  to  Lower  Canada.  These  Ger-  ; 
man-Rnssian  laborers  have  built  a Lutheran  church  and  have  their  : 
own  resident  pastor.  They  are  phenomenally  industrious,  father,  i 
mother,  and  children  working  in  the  fields  side  by  side  early  and  late.  ; 

A number  of  the  men  who  came  first  have  purchased,  with  their  sav-  ' 

ings,  serviceable  teams  and  wagons  and  do  most  of  the  beet  team  work  ^ 

at  so  much  per  ton.  Some  of  the  older  comers  have  ceased  to  dwell  in 
tents,  having  acquired  small  tracts  of  land  and  erected  their  own  i 

houses. 

Many  Phases  « 


There  are  also  about  100  Mexicans,  chiefiy  engaged  in  loading  or  | 
unloading  beets  rather  than  field  work,  but  they  are  transients,  only  j 
staying  around  Sugar  City  for  the  sugar  making  season. 

The  residum  j)ulp  from  the  factory  has  given  an  impetus  to  the 
local  feeding  of  cattle  and  sheep,  one  packing  comi^any  of  Pueblo 
feeding  3,000  head  of  steers  and  500  sheep  at  Sugar  City  this  season. 

The  National  Sugar  Manufactory  company  has  reclaimed  and  i3ut 
into  profitable  production  a large  tract  of  Colorado  land. 

It  has  annually,  for  five  consecutive  years,  disbursed  large  sums 
of  money  in  the  emi^loyment  of  labor  in  Colorado  and  for 

beets  produced  by  independent  growers.  It  has  added  another  i^ros- 
perons  community  to  the  state.  It  obviously  merits  full  ax3preciation 
and  sui3i3ort  from  the  citizens  of  the  state,  no  matter  where  resident 
of  the  state. 

The  Greeley  District. 

The  Greeley  district  was  the  pioneer  in  Colorado  of  agriculture  on 


monta:(;^a  experiment  statioi<,  33 

any  considerable  scale,  by  means  of  irrigation,  and  its  snccess  in  the 
’70s  gave  the  impetus  which  resnlted  in  siinilar  enterprises  and  re- 
clamation of  dry  land  at  many  other  points  in  the  state.  Had  the 
Greeley  colonists  been  less  indomitable  in  the  early  ’70s  and  allowed 
themselves  to  fail  in  their  efforts,  the  development  of  agricnltnre,  as  it 
exists  in  Colorado  to-day,  might  have  been  postponed  possibly  twenty 
years.  The  whole  state,  therefore,  is  infinitely  indebted  to  the  Greeley 
colony  for  its  i3ioneer  work  of  converting  semi -arid  lands  into  fertile 
fields  by  artificial  irrigation  from  the  streams  fed  from  the  melting 
snows  and  eternal  springs  in  the  mountains. 

Of  the  seventy-five  square  miles  of  irrigated,  cultivated  land  snr. 
rounding  Greeley  the  respective  acreages  of  various  crops  for  the  sea- 
son of  1903  are  estimated  in  the  folloAving  order;  (1)  alfalfa,  ('2)  pota- 
toes, (3)  wheat,  (4)  sugar  beets,  (5)  oats,  (6)  barley. 

That  portion  of  the  land  which  has  been  in  continuous  cultivation 
since  the  early  ’70s  is  more  productive  now  than  ever  before  for  var- 
ious reasons,  viz:  (1)  more  intelligent  and  economic  nse  of  water,  (2) 
more  thorough  cultivation,  (3)  the  utilization  of  alfalfa,  plowed  under 
as  a fertilizer,  (4)  rotation  of  crops,  (5)  increased  use  of  barnyard  and 
sheep  pen  manure,  (6)  imi)rovement  in  agricultural  implements  and 
appliances  and  in  grade  of  farm  horses. 

HigK  'WKeat  Average, 

Years  ago  the  average  local  wheat  crop  ranged  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  bushels  per  acre,  while  to-day,  it  is  said  to  range  from  thirty  to 
as  high  as  sixty  bushels  per  acre,  the  minimum  average  being  forty 
bushels. 

Potatoes  formerly  used  to  range  from  seventy  to  eighty  sacks  (of 
100  pounds  each)  to  the  acre,  while  for  the  season  of  1903  they  are 
said  to  average  at  least  100  sacks  per  acre. 

With  the  increased  average  yield  of  wheat  and  potatoes,  the  cost 
of  production  i)er  bushel  and  per  sack  has  decreased. 

The  estimated  cost  of  raising  wheat  around  Greeley  is  said  to  be 
about  $10  per  acre.  An  average  yield  of  forty  bushels  per  acre,  at 
present  price  of  90  cents  per  bushel,  means  $36  per  acre,  or  a profit  to 
the  grower  of,  say,  $25  i^er  acre. 


34 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


The  estimated  cost  of  raising  potatoes  around  Greeley  is  said  to 
be  from  $30  to  $35  per  acre,  including  seed.  An  average  yield  of  100 
sacks  per  acre,  at  present  price  of  70  cents  per  sack,  means  $70  per 
acre,  or  a profit  to  the  grower  of,  say,  $35  per  acre. 

It  is  estimated  that  Weld  county  this  season  has  raised  and  will 
ship  8,000  cars  of  potatoes,  averaging  at  least  fifteen  tons  per  car,  of 
which  at  least  4,000  cars,  or  60,000  tons,  were  raised  in  the  ten  square 
miles  immediately  surrounding  Greeley,  where  the  “dugout”  for  potato 
storage  is  an  adjunct  on  practically  every  farm. 

These  Greeley  potatoes,  on  account  of  their  superior  quality,  have 
been  for  years  shi^Dped  throughout  the  Southern  and  Middle  states, 
and  even  as  far  east  as  New  York  and  Boston,  2,000  miles  by  railroad. 

Beet  Stigar  Factory 

In  1902  the  Greeley  Sugar  company  built  and  completed  a beet 
sugar  factory  at  Greeley  with  a daily  capacity  of  600  tons  of  beets. 

The  officers  of  the  company  are:  C.  S.  Morey,  president;  C.  A. 
Granger,  vice  president;  M.  D.  Thatcher,  treasurer,  and  W.  A.  Dixon, 
secretary. 

The  factory  as  it  stands  to-day,  including  first  cost  and  subsequent 
additions  and  improvements,  represent  a cash  investment  of  $750,000. 
The  factory  premises  cover  sixty-five  acres,  and  the  site  is  ideal. 

While  there  is  a sufficient  resemblance  between  the  various  fac- 
tories of  the  state  to  render  unnecessary  a special  description  of  the 
Greeley  factory,  it  may  be  said  of  this  factory,  that  it  was  evidently 
designed  and  built  by  experienced  men  with  a view  to  maximum  effic- 
iency at  minimum  first  cost  and  subsequent  cost  of  oi^eration.  The 
factory  has  a well,  through  the  gravel  down  to  bed  rock,  from  which 
1,000,000  gallons  per  day  of  pure  water  is  pumped  and  used  exclusively 
in  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 

Wide  Territory  Covered. 

In  1902,  its  first  season,  the  factory  sliced  40,000  tons  of  beets, 
paying  the  farmers  $180,000  and  making  8,000,000  j)ounds  of  sugar. 

For  the  season  of  1903  it  is  estimated  that  the  factory  will  slice 
55,000  tons  of  beets,  paying  the  growers  therefore  $247,000  and  mak- 
ing therefrom  12,000,000  pounds  of  sugar. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


85 


In  the  season  of  1903,  4,H00  acres  of  beets  were  contracted  for  the 
factory,  the  territory  being  far  reaching  at  points  along  the  Union 
Pacific  railroad,  on  the  Denver  line  as  far  as  Fort  Lnpton,  twenty-six 
miles  from  Greeley,  and  along  the  Jnlesburg  line  as  far  as  Denel,  forty 
miles  from  Greeley.  The  factory  has  fonr  dumping  stations  on  the 
line  of  the  Union  Pacific,  viz.,  at  Goodrich,  Kersey,  LaSalle  and  Fort 
Lnpton.  About  three-fifths  of  the  factory’s  supply  of  beets  this  sea- 
son came  in  by  railroad  from  various  points  along  the  Union  Pacific 
and  the  remaining  two-fifths  were  delivered  by  wagon  from  growers 
within  a radius  of  about  five  miles  from  the  factory. 

There  were  550  individual  growers  who  averaged  about  nine  acres 
each,  the  average  yield  being  about  twelve  tons  per  acre.  One  man 
with  twenty-two  acres  raised  twenty-six  tons  per  acre.  Other  growers 
with  smaller  tracts  raised  as  high  as  thirty  and  even  thirty-two  tons 
per  acre,  showing  what  can  be  done. 

Cost  of  Production 

The  cost  of  production  of  the  beets  is  said  to  range  from  $30  to 
$40  per  acre,  depending  on  what  the  grower  has  to  hire.  It  is  said 
that  a man  can  rent  land,  pay  for  water,  hire  a foreman  and  pay  for  all 
necessary  work  and  still  raise  beets  at  a total  cost  of  not  to  exceed  $40 
per  acre. 

In  1902  the  payroll  of  the  factory  during  the  sugar  making  season, 
commencing  October  10  and  finishing  January  17,  is  expected  to  be 
about  $70,000,  and  during  the  fiscal  year  $19,000. 

The  beet  pulp  from  this  factory  amounting  to  over  20,000  tons 
this  season,  is  giving  an  impetus  to  local  stock  feeding,  mostly  sheep. 
Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  iDulp  will  be  fed  to  stock  within  a mile  and  a 
half  of  the  factory,  and  two  cars  of  pulp  per  day  are  being  shipped 
to  points  along  the  Union  Pacific,  as  far  as  Fort  Lnpton  on  the 
Denver  line,  and  as  far  as  Masters  and  Orchard  on  the  Julesburg 
line. 


The  price  of  the  beet  pulp  is  35  cents  per  ton  f.  o.  b.,  also  35  cents 
per  ton  at  the  silo  for  local  beet  growers,  and  50  cents  at  the  silo  to 
non-beet  growers.  According  to  the  United  States  government  report 
beet  pulp  is  worth  $1.22  per  ton  for  stock  feeding  purposes. 


36 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


SHeep  Indtistr^-. 

Near  the  factory  the  company  has  5,0()0  Mexican  and  Southern 
sheep,  including  many  old  ewes,  being  fattened  on  pulp  and  hay. 
They  were  delivered  in  the  factory  pens  on  October  28  and  it  was  esti- 
mated there  were  1,000  head  ready  for  market. 

It  is  estimated  there  will  be  a net  profit  of  at  least  $1  per  head  on 
these  5,000  sheep,  besides  1,000  loads  af  manure,  which  is  sought  after 
by  farmers  at  75  cents  per  load.  These  i^ulp  fattened  sheep  are  ship- 
ped to  Missouri  river  points  as  far  as  Chicago. 

The  Greeley  beet  sugar  factory  represents  a cash  investment  of 
$750,000,  and  in  its  two  seasons’  operations  has  practically  already 
paid  $127,000  for  beets  and  $168,000  in  payrolls,  or  a total  local  dis- 
bursement in  two  years  of  nearly  $600,000,  to  say  nothing  of  cost  of 
coal,  lime  rock,  railroad  freight,  taxes,  etc. 

Eaton,  Colo. 

Eaton  has  a population  of  about  1,000,  and  has  two  banks,  two 
hotels,  two  school  houses,  costing  $30,000,  a newspaper,  a gas  iDlant? 
water  works  system,  sewerage  system,  telephone  system,  three  churches, 
elevator  with  a capacity  of  110,000  bushels,  flouring  mill  of  400-barrel 
daily  capacity,  and  a beet  sugar  factory  of  600  tons  daily  capacity. 
There  are  no  saloons. 

The  agricultural  country  tributary  to  Eaton  is  about  100  square 
miles  in  e:j^tent,  and  contains  several  thousand  population.  In  it  there 
are  about  150  miles  of  main  irrigating  canals,  mostly  fed  from  the 
Cache  la  Poudre,  but  some  from  the  Larimer  river. 

A Great  Farming  Conntry. 

Taking  the  average  160-acre  farm,  tlie  various  crops  are  generally 
represented  about  as  follows:  alfalfa,  forty  acres;  potatoes,  forty 
acres;  sugar  beets  fifteen  acres;  grain,  wheat  predominating,  sixty-five 
acres.  There  are  comparatively  few  eighty-acre  farms,  larger  sizes 
prevailing. 

A special  feature  of  the  district  is  large  ownerships  and  the  rent- 
ing the  land  to  tenants  on  sharek  For  instance,  ex-Goyenor  B.  H. 
Eaton  owns  15,000  acres  of  which  12,000  acres  are  under  cultivation. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


87 


while  his  two  sons  aggregate  an  additional  6,000  acres,  not  one  of  the 
three  doing  any  farming  himself,  but  renting  his  land  out  to  the  actual 
cultivators  on  shares.  The  owner  furnishes  the  land,  irrigating  water, 
house  and  other  improvements,  receiving  as  rent  one-third  of  the  grain 
and  potatoes,  one-fourth  of  the  sugar  beets,  one-half  of  the  alfalfa. 
The  tenant  furnishes  the  implements,  working  animals  and  the  labor? 
taking  the  remainder  of  each  crop  as  his  share.  This  gives  the  ten- 
ants a chance,  which  many  of  them  would  not  otherwise  have.  A 
limited  capital  will  purchase  seed  and  horses,  and  hire  machinery,  wdth 
the  certainty  of  getting  tv/o-thirds  of  the  grain  and  potatoes,  three- 
fourths  of  the  sugar  beets,  and  one-half  of  the  alfalfa  raised,  while  in 
the  event  of  a bad  year  or  poor  crop  the  tenant  farmer  is  not  expected 
to  find  a certain  amount  of  cash  for  a fixed  rent,  whether  he  has  made 
it  or  not.  In  fact,  it  is  a partnership  which  works  well  for  both  land 
owner  and  tenant,  is  equitable  and  has  enabled  many  a man  to  make  a 
start  which  he  could  not  have  done  in  any  other  w^ay. 

THe  £aton  Stigsir  Company. 

The  Eaton  district  during  the  past  season  raised  about  150,000 
bushels  of  wheat  and  about  1,500  cars,  or  22,500  tons,  of  potatoes,  net- 
ting the  growers,  at  $210  per  car,  $315,000, 

In  1802,  the  Eaton  Sugar  company  built  and  completed  a beet 
sugar  factory  at  Eaton,  with  a daily  capacity  of  600  tons  of  beets. 

The  officers  of  the  company  are:  C.  S.  Morey,  president;  W.  D. 
Hoover,  vice-president;  M,  D,  Thacher,  treasurer,  and  W.  A.  Dixon, 
secretary. 

The  factory  as  it  stands  to-day^  iucluding  first  cost  and  subsequent 
additions  and  improvements,  represents  a cash  investment  of  $750,000. 

The  factory  premises  comprise  sixty  acres  and  the  site  is  advan- 
tageous. In  general  matters  it  sufficiently  resembles  the  other  factor- 
ies in  Colorado  as  not  to  call  for  any  detailed  description  here. 

In  1902,  its  first  season,  the  factory  sliced  35,000  tons  of  beets, 
paying  the  farmers  therefor  at  the  rate  of  $5  per  ton,  $175,000, 

For  the  season  of  1903  it  is  estimated  the  factory  will  slice  ()0,000 
tons  of  beets,  paying  the  farmers  therefor,  at  the  rate  of  $5  per  ton, 
$300,000. 


38 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


Hundreds  o/*  Growers 

In  the  season  of  1903  there  were  about  6,000  acres  of  beets  con- 
tracted for  the  factory,  mostly  grown  within  a radius  of  eight  or  ten 
miles  from  the  factory,  the  company  having  two  dumping  stations  on 
the  Union  Pacific  railroad,  north  of  Greeley,  viz.,  one  at  Lucerne,  and 
the  other  at  Ault.  This  factory  has  also  received  beets  from  the  dis- 
tricts south  of  Greeley.  About  65  per  cent,  of  the  beets  come  by 
wagon  from  the  farms  within  three  to  four  miles,  and  the  other  35  per 
j^ent.  come  railroad. 

There  were  about  400  individual  growlers  last  year,  who  averaged 
about  fourteen  acres  each,  the  average  yield  being  upwards  of  twelve 
tons  per  acre.  There  were  instances  where  growers  raised  as  much  as 
thirty-six  tons  per  acre,  and  in  some  cases  of  small  tracts,  receiving 
si:)ecial  attention,  even  as  high  as  forty  tons  per  acre. 

The  local  cost  of  beet  i^roduction  ranges  from  $30  to  $35  per  acre. 

In  1902  the  payroll  of  the  factory  during  the  four  months’  sugar 
making  season  was  about  $40,000,  and  during  the  eight  months  while 
4he  factory  was  idle,  about  $25,000. 

In  1903,  the  payroll  of  the  factory  during  the  sugar  making  sea- 
son, commencing  October  1 and  finishing  January  10,  is  expected  to 
be  $50,000,  and  during  the  remainder  of  the  fiscal  year  $25,000. 

Fortunes  Paid  Out 

The  beet  pulp  residue  from  this  factory,  amounting  to  about  30,- 
000  tons  this  season,  is  sold  at  30  cents  per  ton  at  the  silo,  and  is  being 
used,  along  with  hay,  etc.,  for  the  feeding  of  30,000  sheex)  within  mod- 
arate  radius  of  the  factory.  At  the  time  of  the  writer’s  visit,  Decem- 
ber 21,  there  were  said  to  be  about  12,000  sheep  in  feeding  pens 
adjoining  the  factory. 

Having  regard  to  the  fact  that  the  Eaton  beet  sugar  factory  repre- 
sents a cash  investment  of  $750,000,  and  in  its  two  seasons’  operations 
has  i^ractically  already  paid  $475,000  for  beets  and  $140,000  in  j^ayrolls) 
or  a total  local  disbursement  in  two  years  of  about  $615,000,  to  say 
nothing  of  cost  of  coal,  lime  rock,  railroad  freight,  taxes,  etc.,  the 
writer  was  unprepared  for  the  statement  from  a prominent  Eaton  man 
man  that  there  was  considerable  local  prejudice  against  the  beet  grow- 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


39 


ing,  as  beets  are  supposed  to  impoverish  the  soil.  It  is  surprising  how 
people,  who  could  be  expected  to  know  better,  jump  to  unwarranted 
conclusions,  without  first  making  some  careful  investigation.  Yet 
here  is  a local  example  of  beets  as  compared  with  potatoes  and  show- 
ing that  beets  improve  the  soil  for  other  crops. 

Some  Good  R.etori:is 

Mr.  William  Stanley  of  Lucerne,  grew  for  the  Eaton  sugar  factory 
in  1903,  on  rented  ground,  belonging  to  a Greeley  merchant,  twenty 
acres  of  beets,  which  yielded  483  tons,  for  which  he  was  paid  by  the 
factory  $2,415. 

After  deducting  $200  paid  for  bunching,  thinning,  and  hoeing, 
$241.50  for  pulling  and  topping,  and  $805  (the  value  of  the  land 
owner’s  share  of  the  crop)  for  rent,  he  had  left  a net  balance  of 
$1,168.50,  or  $58.42  net  per  acre. 

During  the  same  season,  1903,  he  grew  on  the  same  farm  thirty 
acres  of  potatoes,  yielding  2,950  sacks,  which  he  says  will  shrink  in 
weight  by  the  time  they  are  sold  to  290,000  pounds.  If  sold  at  present 
price  of  80  cents  per  100  pounds,  they  will  realize  $2,320.  From  that 
amount  he  deducts  picking,  $147.50;  sacks,  $60;  twine,  $3;  taking  out 
of  “dug-out,”  $58;  or  a total  of  $268.50,  which,  added  to  $1,160  (the 
value  of  the  land  owner’s  share  of  the  crop)  for  rent,  makes  his  ex- 
penses $1,428.50,  leaving  him  $891.50  net  for  the  thirty  acres  of  pota- 
toes, or  $29.71  net  per  acre,  as  compared  with  S58.42  per  acre  for  his 
beets. 

How  One  Man  Was  Paid 

In  the  above  comparison  there  is  no  mention  of  the  cost  of  irri- 
gating, cultivating,  digging,  etc.,  as  Mr.  Stanley  says  those  items  are 
about  the  same  in  beets  as  in  potatoes,  bat  if  anything  rather  in  favor 
of  the  beets;  as  beets  can  be  dug  with  two  ho'^ses,  while  four  are 
required  for  digging  potatoes. 

In  1902  Mr.  Stanley  had  a certain  thirty  acres  of  which  five  acres 
were  in  beets,  yielding  twenty  tons  per  acre,  and  the  other  twenty-five 
acres  being  in  wheat,  which,  however,  was  destroyed  by  hail  June  27, 
did  not  yield  an  ounce  of  wheat,  though  irrigated,  and  therefore 
remained  practically  fallow  in  1902.  Of  this  same  thirty  acres,  in  1903 
he  planted  the  five  acres  in  potatoes  which  had  been  in  beets  in  1902, 


40 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION 


and  they  yielded  655  sacks,  or  131  sacks  per  acre.  The  other  twenty- 
five  acres  which  had  been  in  whetb  in  1902  he  also  i3lanted  wdth  pota- 
toes in  1903,  and  they  yielded  2,295,  sacks,  or  an  average  of  91.8  sacks 
per  acre,  as  compared  with  131  sacks  per  acre  on  the  five  acres  which 
had  , previously  grown  beets.  Mr.  Stanley’s  experience  is  by  no  means 
an  isolated  case. 

li\cl\istr>’  Yet  New 

The  sugar  beet  industry  in  Colorado  is  too  new  for  Colorado  peo- 
ple yet  to  know  all  about  it,  and  Colorado  can  learn  much  from  Ger- 
many, where  the  industry  has  been  long  established  and  has  been 
largely  brought  down  to  scientific  principles. 

Report  No.  74  (page  149)  of  the  United  vStates  Department  of 
Agriculture  says  that  the  influence  of  beet  culture  on  the  farmer’s 
land  is  best  shown  by  reproducing  that  portion  of  the  report  of  one  of 
the  United  States  consuls  in  Germany,  which  treats  of  the  effects  of 
beet  culture  in  rotation  with  other  crops.  The  Germans  are  not  only 
exceedingh"  systematic,  but  very  scientific,  and  the  following  report  of 
exhaustive  experiments  most  carefully  made,  should  serve  to  unde- 
ceive any  who  erroneously  believe  that  sugar  beets  rapidly  exhaust 
the  soil. 

The  United  States  Consul’s  report  is  as  follows; 

Some  German^  Figures 

“A  German  farm  of  625  acres  produced,  before  the  introduction 
of  beet  culture,  yearly  9,736  bushels  of  grain  in  ten  years’  average. 
After  beet  culture  was  introduced,  with  125  acres  yearly  to  beets,  the 
average  yearly  grain  crop  from  the  remaining  500  acres  was  9,870 
bushels,  or  134  bushels’  increase.  Another  farm  in  the  province  of 
Saxony,  also  of  625  acres,  produced,  before  beet  culture  was  intro- 
duced, in  ten  years’  average,  13,879  bushels  of  grain.  When  five  years 
afterwards  135  acres  were  planted  with  beets,  the  grain  crop  of  the 
remaining  490  acres  was  14,365  bushels’  average,  and  afterwards,  when 
yearly  220  acres  of  beets  were  planted,  the  average  grain  crop  from  the 
remaining  405  acres  was  14,397  bushels,  or  518  bushels  more  than 
from  the  whole  625  acres  before  beets  were  raised.” 

The  figures  of  thirty-five  other  farms  of  from  500  to  1,000  acres 
each,  in  the  x^rovince  of  Saxony,  are  given  on  page  150  of  Rej^ort  No. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


41 


74,  the  average  beet  crop  on  which  was  17  1-5  tons  per  acre,  and  show- 
ing that,  in  consequence  of  growing  sugar  beets  in  rotation  with  other 
crops,  the  average  yield  of  the  other  crops  was  increased  as  follows: 
Wheat,  24  per  cent.;  rye.  14.8  per  cent.;  barley,  25.2  per  cent. ; oats, 
41.5  per  cent.;  peas,  86  per  cent.;  potatoes,  103.2  per  cent. 

SHould  Stu-div'  Subject 

In  the  light  of  the  exj^erience  of  Germany,  it  is  evident  that  the 
farmers  in  Montana,  who  desire  to  materially  increase  the  average  of 
their  crops  of  wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  etc.,  cannot  do  better  than  grow 
sugar  beets  in  rotation  with  such  other  crops. 

On  this  subject,  Rei^ort  No.  74  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  says  that  the  above  quoted  German  demonstration 
‘‘shows  that  the  farmer  who  rotates  his  beets  with  other  crops  does  not 
decrease  the  productiveness  of  his  land,  when  sown  to  other  crops,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  greatly  increases  its  productiveness.  The  troth  is 
that  a good  farmer  cannot  measure  his  profits  by  his  beet  crop  alone, 
but  must  consider  the  extra  profit  which  beet  culture  enables  him  to 
make  on  everything  else  he  grows.” 

The  individual  beet  growers  of  Montana  would  do  well  to  study 
the  valuable  information  contained  in  the  before  mentioned  Report 
No.  74,  as  they  would  thereby  avoid  being  misled  by  the  prejudiced 
statements  of  practically  irresponsible  iDersons,  who  have  evidently 
given  insufilcient  study  to  the  subject. 


42 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


Report  of  Crop  of  1903. 


TABLE  OP  COMPOSITION,  YIELD  AND  VALUE 


Laboratory 

No. 

Co-operating 

Farmer 

Locality 

Date 

Analyzed 

2499 

H.  O.  C.  Andrews 

McLeod,  Sweet  Grass  Co 

Sept. 

2500 

I.  D.  O’Donnell 

Billings,  Yellowstone  Co 

2501 

H.  Shrammeck 

Cascade,  Cascade  Co 

u 

2502 

C.  H.  Norton 

Bridger,  Carbon  Co 

2503 

J.  R.  Stevens 

2504 

G.  P.  Hunter 

2505 

J.  R.  Stevens 

2506 

A.  Anderson 

Peeley,  Silver  Bow  Co 

2507 

C.  R.  Schurch 

Deer  Lodge,  Powell  Co 

2508 

M.  Plannigan 

Billings,  Yellowstone  Co 

ii 

2515 

Chas.  E.  Coleman 

Missoula,  Missoula  Co 

a 

2516 

Daniel  Payne 

Monarch,  Cascade  Co 

2517 

H.  Backhouse 

Missoula,  Missoula  Co 

2518 

Jas.  Largent 

Ulm,  Cascade  Co 

u 

2525 

H.  O.  C.  Andrews 

McLeod,  Sweet  Grass  Co 

Oct. 

2532 

Theodore  Koenig 

Kalispell,  Plathead  Co 

2539 

N.  D.  Root 

Whitehall,  Jefferson  Co 

u 

2547 

J.  A.  Conrey 

Cascade,  Cascade  Co 

u 

2550 

IT.  Shrammeck 

a n u 

2551 

J,  B.  Taylor 

u u u 

2552 

Toman  Bros 

2553 

J.  R.  Stevens  

Bridger,  Carbon  Co 

41 

2554 

C.  R.  Schurch 

Deer  Lodge,  Powell  Co 

(4 

2555 

J.  R.  Stevens 

Bridger,  Carbon  Co 

44 

2562 

P.  W.  Bradford 

Great  Palls,  Cascade  Co 

44 

2563 

A.  Anderson 

Peeley,  Silver  Bow  Co 

Nov. 

2564 

Jos.  L.  Sargent 

Ulm,  Cascade  Co 

3 

U 

SI 

3 

3 

3 

21 

21 

22 

22 

22 

23 

23 

23 

26 

26 

28 

30 

30 

30 

3 

14 

14 

24 

24 

28 

28 

29 

29 

29 

31 

. 1 

3 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


43 


TABLE  OF  COMPOSITION,  YIELD  AND  VALUE.— Continued 


Laboratory 

No. 

Average  weight 

1 Per  cent. 

sugar 

1 in  juice 

1 Per  cent. 

sugar  in  beet 

1 

Per  cent. 

total  solids 
in  juice 

Yield,  tons 

per  acre 

1 Per  cent, 
purity 

2499 

1 lb.  8 oz 

16.8 

16.0 

20 

GO 

1 

2500 

4 lbs 

10.6 

10.1 

15.5 

20 

68.8 

2501 

1 lb.  834  oz 

9.1 

8.6 

14.5 

62.7 

2502 

1 lb.  2 oz 

13.2 

12.5 

17.6 

75 

2503 

1 lb.  5 oz 

8.6 

8 2 

13.7 

10 

62 

2504 

1 lb.  5 oz.  . . ./. 

10.6 

10.1 

15.5 

10 

68.3 

2505 

1 lb.  0 oz 

9.0 

8.55 

13.2 

10 

68.2 

2506 

1 lb.  5.5  oz 

12.9 

12.3 

16.9 

20 

76.3 

2507 

1 lb.  2.7  oz 

14.0 

13.3 

18.8 

10 

74.4 

2508 

1 lb.  8 oz 

10.9 

10.4 

15.5 

70.3 

2515 

1 lb.  13.2  oz 

15.6 

14.8 

18.0 

86.6 

2516 

1 lb.  1.22  oz.  

15.4 

14.6 

19.4 

79.3 

2517 

0 lb.  6 oz 

11.8 

11.2 

14.5 

4 

81.3 

2518 

0 lb.  14.7  oz 

11.3 

10.6 

15.4 

73.3 

2525 

1 lb.  15  oz 

14.4 

13.7 

16.8 

85.7 

2532 

1 lb.  5 oz 

17.8 

16.9 

22.1 

80.9 

2539 

2 lbs.  5 oz 

11.9 

11.3 

15.4 

9 

83.8 

2547 

3 lbs.  0 oz 

10.8 

10.3 

16.0 

67.5 

2450 

2 lbs.  0.7  oz 

13.0 

12.4 

17.8 

73 

2551 

1 lb.  3.7  oz 

13.8 

13.1 

18.7 

12  2 

73.7 

2552 

0 lb.  11  oz 

14.9 

14.2 

19.3 

7 

77.2 

2553 

1 lb.  5.5  oz  

13.2 

12.5 

18.1 

10 

72.9 

2554 

1 lb.  4.7  oz 

14.6 

13.9 

18.8 

13 

72.3 

2555 

] lb.  6.7  oz 

14.0 

13.3 

19.3 

10 

72.5 

2562 

11b.  9.7  oz 

13.0 

12.4 

15.7 

21 

82.8 

2563 

1 lb.  9 oz 

13.5 

12.8 

17.6 

20 

76.7 

2564 

1 lb.  0 oz 

12.2 

11.6 

16.6 

73.5 

Average 

1 lb.  8,5  oz 

12.5 

11.87 

17 

12.5 

74.2 

4‘4  MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION 


TABLE  OF  CULTURE  NOTES 


Laboratory 

No. 

Co-operating  farmer 

Soil 

Date 

planted 

Date 

thinned 

2499 

H.  O.  C.  Andrews 

Black  loam 

May  14 

June  12 

2500 

1.  D.  O’Donnell 

“ 15 

“ 10 

2501 

H.  Schraninieck 

River  bottom 

“ 20 

“ 20 

2502 

C.  H.  Norton 

‘ 10 

2503 

J.  R.  Stevens 

Clay  loam 

“ 24 

June  20 

2504 

G.  F.  Hunter.  . 

“ 20...... 

July  1 

2505 

J.  R.  Stevens 

“ 24 

June  20 

2506 

A.  Anderson 

Sandy  loam 

“ 28 

“ 20 

2507 

C,  R.  Schurch 

“ 14 

July  8 

2508 

M.  Flannigan 

Alkali  soil 

2515 

C.  E.  Coleman 

Sandy  loam 

May  10 

June  25 

2516 

D.  Payne 

Bench  land 

“ 13 

July  3 

2517 

H.  Buckhouse 

Gravelly  black  loam 

“ 25 

June  10 

2525 

H.  O.  C.  Andrews 

Black  loam 

“ 16 

“ 14 

2532 

T.  Koenig 

“ 18 

Not  thinned 

2539 

M,  D.  Root 

Gravelly  loam 

“ 15 

June  15 

2547 

J.  A.  Conrey 

Black  sandy  loam 

June  14  .... 

2550 

H,  Schrammeck 

River  bottom 

May  20 

June  20 

2551 

J.  B.  Taylor 

Heavy  black,  some  alkali 

June  6 

July  10 

2552 

Toman  Bros  

Black  sandy  loam 

May  29 

June  15 

2553 

J.  R.  Stevens 

Clay  loam 

24 

“ 20 

2554 

C.  R.  Schurch 

Black  loam 

“ 14 

July  8 

2555 

J.  R.  Stevens 

Clay  loam 

‘ 24 

June  20 

2562 

P.  W.  Bradford 

Light  sandy  loam 

“ 1 

“ 15 

2563 

A.  Anderson 

Sandy  loam 

“ 28 

“ 20 

MONTANA  EXPEEIMENT  STATION  45 

TABLE  OF  CULTURE  NOTES!— Continued 


Laboratory 

No. 

Date 

harvested 

Width  1 

between 

rows 

Irrigation 

Cultivation 

Remarks 

2499 

Sept.18 

18  in. 

June  20,  July  25. . 

Plowed  8 in.  deep. 

Season  unfavorable 

2500 

“ 18 

24  “ 

“ 7 “ 7.. 

12  “ “ . 

2501 

“ 21 

24  “ 

None 

6 “ “ . 

“ favorable 

2502 

“ 21 

July  1,  Aug.  1 . . . . 

None 

2503 

“ 21 

16  in. 

June  10,  Aug.  12, 

Sept.  8 

Plowed  10  in.  deep 

“ unfavorable, 

2504 

26 

18 

June  12,  Aug.  15, 

stand  poor 

Sept.  1 

“ 

10  “ “ 

Season  unfavorable 

2505 

“ 21 

16  “ 

June  10,  Aug.  12, 

Sept.  8 

10  “ 

2506 

••  22 

18  “ 

June  21,  July  5, 

July  20,  Aug.  12 

“ 

7 “ 

“ favorable 

2507 

“ 25 

28  “ 

Twice 

8 “ 

“ fair 

2508 

“ 28 

unfavorable 

2515 

“ 28 

30  “ 

June  23,  July  15, 

Aug.  10 

“ 

8 - “ 

“ u 

2516 

“ 28 

30  “ 

8 “ “ 

Stand  excellent,  season 

■■ 

unfavorable 

2517 

Oct.  1 

18  “ 

None 

8 “ “ 

Season  favorable 

2525 

- 3 

20 

June  20,  July  25. . 

8 “ " 

“ unfavorable 

2532 

“ 10 

20  “ 

None. 

.6“  V 

2539 

“ 16 

20  “ 

July  1,  Aug.  10, 

' 

o 

Aug.  15 

8 “ 

2547 

“ 22 

20  “ 

Twice. 

8 “ “ 

Planted  too  late 

2550 

“ 26 

24  “ 

8 “ 

Season  fair 

2551 

“ 24 

24  •' 

Frequent 

It 

2552 

“ 22 

30  “ 

Twice 

a 

10  “ “ 

“ unfavorable 

2553 

“ 26 

16  “ 

June  10,  Aug.  12, 

Sept.  8 

10  “ “ 

“ fairly  good 

2554 

“ 26 

28  “ 

Once  in  June 

“ 

8 “ - 

“ fair 

2555 

“ 26 

16  “ 

June  10.  Aug.  12, 

Sept.  8 

10  “ “ • 

“ very  unfavorable 

2562 

29 

32  “ 

Not  irrigated 

6 “ “ 

fair 

No 

subsoiling  . . 

■ ■ ! 

2563 

“ 29 

18 

June  21,  July  5, 

Aug.  12 

Plowed  7 in.  ,4eep. 

“ favorable 

46 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION 


EXPERmENT  STATION,— VARIETY  TEStS. 


Lab. 

No. 

Date 

Harvested. 

Plat  1 

2493 

Sept.  19 

2 

2494 

“ 19 

“ 3 

2495 

“ 19 

“ 4 

2496 

“ 19 

“ 5 

2497 

“ 19 

“ 9 

2498 

“ 19 

Plat  1 

2509 

Sept.  26 

“ 2 

2510 

“ 26 

“ 3 

2511 

“ 26 

“ 4 

2512 

“ 26 

5 

2513 

“ 26 

“ 5 

2514 

“ 26 

Plat  1 

2519 

Oct.  3 

“ 2 

2520 

3 

“ 3 

2521 

“ 3 

“ 4 

2522 

“ 3 

“ 5 

2523 

3 

“ 6 

2524 

“ 3 

Plat  1 

2526 

Oct.  10 

“ 2 

2527 

“ 10 

“ 3 

2528 

“ 10 

u 4 

2529 

“ 10 

“ 5 

2530 

“ 10 

6 

2531 

“ 10 

Plat  1 

2533 

Oct.  17 

“ 2 

2534 

“ 17 

“ 3 

2535 

“ 17 

“ 4 

2536 

u 47 

“ 5 

2537 

“ 17 

“ 6 

2538 

“ 17 

Plat  1 

2541 

Oct.  24 

“ 2 

2542 

“ 24 

“ 3 

2543 

“ 24 

“ 4 

2544 

“ 24 

“ 5 

2545 

“ 24 

“ 6 

2546 

" 24 

Plat  1 

2556 

Oct.  30 

“ 2 

2557 

“ 30 

“ 3 

2558 

“ 30 

" 4 

2559 

“ 30 

“ 5 

2560 

“ 30 

“ 6 

2561 

“ 30 

Variety. 


Zehringen,  No  3942 
Kleinwanzlebener  . 

Vilmorin 

Strandes 

Braune,  No  2885. . . 

Hoerning 

Zehringen,  No  3842 
Kleinwanzlebener  . 

Vilmorin 

Strandes 

Braune,  No  2885. . . 

Hoerning 

Zehringen,  No  3942 
Kleinwanzlebener  . 

Vilmorin 

Strandes 

Braune,  No  2885. . . 

HoerninS 

Zehringen,  No  3942 
Kleinwanzlebener  . 

Vilmorin 

Standes 

Braune,  No  2885. . . 
Hoerning. . . . . . . . 

Zehringen', 'No ' 3942 
Kleinwanzlebener  . 

Vilmorin 

Strandes 

Braune,  No  2888. . . 

Hoerning 

Zehringer,  No  3942 . 
Kleinwanzlebener  . 

Vilmorin 

Strandes 

Braune,  No  2885 , . . 

Hoerning 

Zehringen,  No  3942 
Kleinwanzlebener  . 

Vilmorin 

Strandes 

Braune,  No  2885. . . 
Hoerning 


Average 

Weight. 


14.6  oz. 

14.6  oz. 

12.3  oz. 

14.6  oz. 

15,1  oz. 

12.6  oz. 

15.8  oz. 

14.6  oz. 

14.7  oz. 
ib  2.3  oz. 
lb 

lb  2oz. 
lb  1.1  oz. 
lb  2.6  oz. 

15.5  oz. 

15  oz. 

14.8  oz. 
lb  3.1  oz. 

14  oz. 
lb  2 oz. 
lb  3oz. 
lb 

.15  oz , 
lb'  0.3  oz. 

12.3  oz. 
lb  0.6  oz. 
lb 
lb 
lb 
lb 
lb 
lb 
lb 
lb 
lb 


0.6  oz. 

1.0  oz. 
3 oz. 
3 oz. 
3.6  oz . 

3.0  oz. 

2.8  oz. 

3.8  oz. 
lb  11.3  oz. 

14.3  oz, 
lb  4.5  oz. 
14.3  oz. 
13.0  oz. 
12.7  oz, 
lb  3.7  oz, 


Per  Ct. 
Sugar 
in  juice 


14.2 

15.5 

15.0 

13.6 

11.7 

12.4 

13.7 
14.2 

12.5 

14.5 

11.8 
11.8 
16.8 

17.0 

15.4 

14.6 

13.1 

13.4 

17.2 

15.7 

14.9 

16.4 

14.7 

15.5 
20.1 
17.1 

17.0 

17.3 

14.6 

15.5 

18.5 

18.4 

17.7 

15.8 

15.7 

14.5 

19.0 

16.8 

17.9 
17.8 

16.5 

16.1 


Per  Ct. 
Sugar 
in  beet 


13.5 

14.7 

14.3 

12.9 
11.1 

11.8 

13.0 

13.5 

11.9 

13.8 
11.2 
11.2 

16.0 
16-2 

14.6 

13.9 

12.5 

12.6 

16.3 

14.9 

14.2 

15.6 

14.0 

14.7 

19.1 

16.3 

16.2 

16.4 

13.9 

14.7 

17.6 

17.5 

16.8 
15  0 

14.9 

13.8 
18.1 
16.0 
17.0 

16.9 

15.7 
15.3 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


47 


EXPERIMENT  STATION— Variety  Tests  Continued. 


Laby. 

No. 

Per  Ct.  Total 
Solids  in  Juice 

Purity. 

2493 

17.9 

79.3 

2494 

18.9 

82. 

2495 

18.5 

81.1 

2496 

18.0 

75.6 

2497 

15.3 

77.1 

2498 

17.8 

69.7 

2509 

17.1 

80.1 

2510 

17.7 

80.2 

2511 

16.1 

71.4 

2512 

18.1 

80.1 

2513 

15.3 

77.1 

2514 

15.5 

76.1 

2519 

20.1 

83.6 

2520 

20.3 

83.7 

2521 

19.5 

79. 

2522 

18.0 

81.1 

2523 

16.9 

77.5 

2524 

16.9 

79.3 

2526 

21.1 

81. 

2527 

20.1 

78.1 

2528 

18.3 

81.4 

2529 

19.9 

82.4 

2530 

18.2 

80.8 

2531 

18.8 

82.4 

25.33 

22.7 

88.1 

2534 

20.1 

85.1 

25a5 

19.7 

86.3 

2536 

19.8 

87.3 

2537 

18.1 

80.6 

2538 

18.4 

84.2 

2541 

21.7 

85.2 

2542 

21.4 

85.9 

2543 

21.2 

83.5 

2544 

19.0 

83.2 

2545 

19.0 

82.6 

2546 

17.9 

81.0 

2556 

21.3 

89.2 

2557 

19.4 

86.6 

2.558 

20.9 

85.6 

2559 

20.8 

85.6 

2560 

20.2 

81.6 

2561 

19.4 

82.9 

48 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


VARIETY  TESTS.  EXPERIMENT  STATION.  CULTURE  NOTES. 


Variety 

'Planted 

Irrigated 

1 

1 Thinned 

j 

Yield 

Plat  1 

Zehringen,  No. 

3942 

May  26 

July  3 and  4 about 

June  1 and  15 

Stand  very 

“ 2 

Klein  wanzlebener. 

“ 26 

3 in.  deep;  Aug. 
1,  2 in.  deep  . . . . , 
'July  5 and  4 about 

June  1 and  15 

good, 1872 
lbs. 

1992  lbs.,  stand 

“ 3 

Vilmorin 

: “ 29 

1 3 in.  deep;  Aug. 

1,  2 in.  deep ; 

July  3 and  4 about 

June  1 and  15 

very  good 

1632  lbs.,  stand 

“ 4 

Strandes  Klein- 
wanzlebener  . . . 

1 

“ 29 

3 in.  deep;  Aug. 
1,  about  2 in. deep 

July  3 and  4 about 

i 

June  1 and  15 

only  fair 

1368  lbs., stand 

“ 5 

Braune,  No.  2885. . 

“ 29 

3 in,  deep;  Aug.  1,’ 
about  2 in.  deep 
July  3 and  4 about 

June  1 and  15 

only  fair 

892  lbs.,  stand 

6 

Hoerning  improv- 
ed Kleinwanzle- 
bener  

“ 29 

3 in.  deep;  Aug.l, 
about  2 in.  deep 

July  3 and  4 about 

June  1 and  15 

only  fair 

1392  lbs.,  stand 

1 

3in.  deep;  Aug.l, 
about  2 in.  deep 

only  fair 

EXPERIMENT  STATION  TESTS 


Effects  of  Degree  of  Maturity  on  Weight,  Richness  and  Purity  of  Beets.  All 
Varieties  Averaged  Together 


Date 

harvested 

Average 

weight 

Average  per 
cent,  sugar 
' in  juice 

Average  per 
cent,  sugar  in 
beets 

Average  of 
total  solids 
in  juice 

Average 
purity, 
per  cent. 

Sept.  19  .... 
“ 26 

1 3 . 9 oz 

13.7 

13.0  OZ . . . . . . 
12.4  “ 

17.7 

77.4 

16.2  “ 

13.1 

16,6 

77.5 

Oct.  3 

16.6  “ 

15.0 

14.3  “ 

18.6 

80.7 

“ 10 

16.4  “ 

15.7 

14.9  “ 

19.4 

81.0  

“ 17. 

“24  . .. 

16.3  “ 

16.9 

15.9  “ 

19.8 

20.0 

85.3 

83.6 

20.4  “ 

15.7  “ 

16.7 

17.3 

15.8  “ 

“ 30 

16.4  “ 

20.3 

85.3 

MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


49 


EXPERIMENT  STATION.  VARIETY  TESTS.  VARIETY  AVERAGES. 


Date 

harvested 

Average 

weight 

Average  pel- 
cent,  sugar 
in  juice 

Average  per 
cent,  sugar  in 
beets 

Average  of 
total  solids 
in  juice 

Average 
purity, 
per  cent. 

Zehringen, 
No.  3942 

Sept.  19 

14  6 

07  .... 

14  2 .... 

13  5 

17.9  

79.3 

“ 26 

Oct.  3 

15.8 

17.1 

13.7  

16.8  

13.0  

16.0  

17.1. 

20.1 

80.1 

83.6 

“ 10 

14.0 

u 

17.2 

16.3  

21.1 

81 

“ 17 

12.3 

20.1 

19.1 

9 9,  7 

88.1 

“ 24 

19.0 

18.5 

17.6 

21.7 

85.2 

“ 30 

14.3 

19.1 

18  1 

21.3 

89.2....  ;... 

Totals 

107  1 

oz 

119.6 

113.6 

141.9 

586.5  

Averages  . . 

KIeinwanz= 

lebener 

15.3 

17.1 

16.2 

20.2 

83.8 

Sept.  19 

14.6 

oz 

15.5 

14  7 

18.9 

82 

“ 26..... 

14.6 

14.2 

13.5 

17.7 

80.2 

Oct.  3 

18.6 

U 

17.0 

16.2 

20  3 

83.7  ... 

“ 10 

18. 

u 

15.7 

14.9 

20.1 

78.1 

“ 17 

16.6 

u 

17.1 

16.3 

20.1 

85.1 

“ 24 

19.6 

18.4 

17.5 

21.4 

85.9 

“ 30 

20.51 

16.8 

16.0 

19.4 

86  6 

Totals 

122 . 5 

oz  

114.7 

109.1 

137.9 

581  6 

Averages  . . 

Yilmorin 

17.5 

16.4 

15.6 

19  7 

83.1 

Sept.  19 

12.3 

oz 

15  

14.3 

18.5 

81.1 

“ 26 

14.7 

It 

12.5 

11.9 

16.1 

71.4  

Oct.  3 

15.5 

15.4 

14.6 

19.5 

79.0 

“ 10 

19. 

U / 

14.9 

14  2 

18  3 

81.4 

“ 17 

16. 

( t 

17 

16.2 

19.7 

86.3 

“ 24 

19. 

(i 

17.7 

16.8 

21  9 

86.5 

“ .30 

14.3 

« i 

17.9 

17.0 

20.9 

85.6 

Totals 

110.8 

oz 

110.4 

105.0 

134.2 

568.3 

Averages  . . 

15.8 

15.8 

15.0 

19.2 

81.2 

50 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


VARIETY  AVERAGES.— Concluded. 


Date 

harvested 

Average 

weight 

Average  per 
cent,  sugar 
in  juice 

Average  per 
cent,  sugar  in 
beets 

Average  of 
total  solids 
in  juice 

Average 
purity, 
per  cent. 

Strandes 

Sept.  19 

“ 26 

14.6  oz 

18.3  “ 

13.6 

14.5 

12.9 

13.8  

13.9  

15.6 

16.4 

15.0 

16.9  

18 

18.1 

75.6 

80.1 

Oct.  3 

15.0  “ 

14.6 

16.4 

18.0 

81.1 

10 

16.0  “ 

19.9 

82.4 

“ 17 

16  6 “ 

17.3 

19.8 

87.3 

‘‘  24 

18.8  “ 

13.0  “ 

15.8  

17.8  

19.0 

20.8 

83.2 

*•  30 

Totals 

Averages  . , 

Braune,  No. 

2885 

Sept.  19 

85.6 

112.3  oz 

16.0  “ 

110.0 

104.5 

14.9 

11.1 

11.2 

133.6 

575.3 

15.7 

19.1 

82.2 

15.1  oz 

16. 

11.7  

11.8  

15.3 

77.1 

“ 26 

15.3 

77.1 

Oct.  3 

14  8 “ . 

13  1 

12.5 

16  9 

77.5 

“ 10 

15  “ . . 

14.7  

14.0 

18  2 

80  8 

“ 17 

17 

14  6 

13.9 

18.1 

80.6 

“ 24  

18.8  “ 

15.7 

16  5 

14.9 

15.7 

19.0 

82.6 

“ 30 

12.7  “ 

20.2 

82.9 

Totals 

Averages  . . 

Hoerning 

Sept.  19. . . . 

“ 26 

Oct.  3 

“ 10.  . .. 

109.4  oz 

15  6 “ 

98.1 

14.0  

93.3  

13.3  

123.0 

17.6 

558.6 

79.8. . . 

12.6  oz 

12.4 

11.8 

17.8 

69.7 

18. 

19  1 “ . 

11.8 

13  4 

11.2 

15.5 

76.1 

12.6 

16.9 

79.3 

16  3 “ 

15.5 

14.7 

18.8 

82.4 

“17 

19 

15.5 

14.7 

18.4 

84.2 

“ 24 

27  3 “ 

14.5 

16.1 

13.8 

15.3 

17.9 

81.0 

30 

19.7  “ 

19.4 

81.9 

Totals 

Averages  . . 

132.0  oz 

99.2 

94.1 

124.7 

559.6 

18  8 “ 

14.2 

13.4 

17.8 

80.0  

>> 

o 

ct3  o 

Sz 

cS 

1805 

1831 

1832 

1833 

1834 

1835 

1836 

1837 

1838 

1842 

1843 

1844 

1845 

1843 

1847 

1848 

1869 

1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 

1874 

1875 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1966 

1967 

1968 

1969 

1970 

1971 

1972 


.19 

28 

28 

28 

28 

28 

28 

28 

28 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

19 

19 

19 

19 

19 

19 

19 

26 

26 

26 

26 

26 

26 

26 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION.  VARIETY  TESTS.— Season 


Variety 


Miscellaneous 

KleinwanzIeJbener,  No.  5770  

Utah  Seed  

Zehringen,  No.  3942  

Braune,  No.  2885  

Klein wanzlebener  Dippe,  No.  3944 

Kleinwanzlebener  Russia,  No.  3943  

Vilmorin  

Unknown  variety 

Kleinwanzlebener  No.  5770  

Utah  Seed  

Zehringen,  No.  3942  

Braune,  No.  2885 

Kleinwanzlebener  Dippe,  No.  3944 

Klein wauzlebener  Russia,  No.  3943 

Vilmorin 

Kleinwanzlebener,  No.  5770 

Utah 

Zehringen,  No.  3942  

Braune,  No.  2885  

Kleinwanzlebener  Dippe,  No.  3944 

Kleinwanzlebener  Russia,  No.  3743 

Vilmorin 

Kleinwanzlebener,  No.  5770  

Utah 

Zehringen,  No.  3942  

Braune.  No.  2885  

Kleinwanzlebener  Dippe,  No.  3944 

Kleinwanzlebener  Russia,  No.  3943 

Vilmorin 

Kleinwanzlebener,  No.  5770 

Utah 

Zehringen,  No.  3942  

Braune,  No.  2885 

Kleinwanzlebener  Dippe,  No.  3944 

Kleinwani^lebener  Russia,  No.  3943 

Vilmorin 


Average 

weight, 

oz. 

Sugar 

in  juice 

Sugar 

in  beet 

Purity 

Coef. 

20.00 

16.8 

15.96 

84.44 

24.8 

15.8 

15.3 

81.00 

25.4 

16.5 

15.67 

85.5 

16.8 

15.6 

14.82 

88.2 

23.00 

16.1 

15.19 

83.3 

19.6 

16.3 

15.58 

82.02 

23.4 

15.00 

14.25 

78.00 

20.2 

15.8 

15.01 

79.7 

20.4 

16.6 

15.77 

85.5 

20.5 

16.1 

15.29 

76.3 

21.00 

17.9 

17.00 

87.5 

22.00 

15.9 

15.10 

74.6 

20.00 

17.7 

16.71 

82.3 

19.00 

19.5 

18.52 

88.6 

18.00 

17.6 

16.72 

86.1 

26.5 

14.00 

13.3 

72.9 

25.5 

17.0 

16.15 

86.00 

17.00 

18.5 

17.57 

84.9 

15.5 

18.3 

17.38 

83.3 

16.5 

18.5 

17.57 

86.3 

14.00 

19.1 

18.14 

90.5 

14.5 

18.6 

17.67 

88.5 

17.00 

19.2 

18.24 

87.6 

15.00 

18.4 

17.48 

82.9 

18.00 

19.3 

18.33 

86.1 

14.66 

20.00 

19.00 

87.00 

16.66 

19.9 

18.9 

87.6 

18.66 

18.3 

17.38 

85.9 

14.66 

18.2 

17.29 

86.6 

17.00 

17.9 

17.00 

84.00 

20.8 

17.90 

17.00 

81.8 

17.4 

20.10 

19.05 

85.00 

20.00 

19.70 

18.76 

85.5 

21.00 

19.70 

18.74 

87.00 

23.00 

19.50 

18.46 

88.00 

19.00 

19.30 

18.35 

87.5 

22.00 

17.97 

17.01 

86.00 

52 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


AVERAGES  OP  ALL  TESTS.  EXPERIMENT  STATION.— Season  of  1901 


Variety 

Average 

weight, 

oz. 

Sugar  1 

in  juice, 

per  cent. 

Sugar 

in  beet, 

per  cent. 

Purity 

Coef. 

Tons  per 

acre 

Lbs.  sugar 

per  acre 

Klein wanzlebener,  No.  5770  

21.32 

17.01 

16.31 

81.6 

13.5 

4403 

Utah 

19.76 

18.44 

17.51 

85.8 

11.7 

4007 

Zehringen.  No.  3912 

17.8 

17.91 

17.01 

83.7 

11.45 

3895 

Braune,  No.  2885 

19.43 

18.38 

17.12 

85.3 

10.5 

3658 

Kleinwanzlebener  Dippe,  No.  3914 

18.85 

18.53 

17.61 

87.00 

10.4 

3662 

Klein  wanzlebener  Russia,  No.  3913 

17.91 

17.75 

16.85 

85.3 

9.25 

.3117 

Vilmorin 

20.5 

17.13 

16.27 

81.00 

9.5 

3091 

General  average . . . 

19.37 

17.88 

16.98 

81.9 

10.9 

3690 

AVERAGES  FOR  SUCCESSIVE  DATES.  EXPERIMENT  STATION.— 

Season  of  1901 


Date 

S rt.H 

o tx 

c s;  o 
o txx: 

C o 
> > 

^ T ^ 

< ^ 

Ph 

fS 

Sept.  28. . . . 

21.7  oz 

15.96 

15.20 

82.90 

October  5. . 

21.0  “ 

16.96 

16.13 

81.19 

12.. 

17.14  “ 

18.46 

17.53 

86.73 

“ 19.. 

16.38  “ 

18.86 

17.92 

85.73 

“ 26.. 

20.45  “ 

19.18 

18.25 

85.83 

MOJNTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


oB 


RESULTS  IN  1901.— CLARK’S  FORK  VALLEY.— BRIDGER  AND  GEBO. 

The  * indicates  that  the  P.  O.  address  is  Gebo;  the  address  of  all  others  is 
Bridger. 


Laboratory 

J\o. 

Name 

■ 

Average 
weight  ill  oz. 

Sugar 
ill  juice 

Sugar 
in  beet 

Purity 
Coef . 

Tons  beets 

per  acre 

Lbs.  sugar 

per  acre 

1850 

P.R.  Miller* ’ . 

8.8 

17.1 

16.22 

79.9 

6.5 

2108 

1854 

C.  F.  Sexton 

29.00 

15.9 

15.10 

80.3 

25.00 

7552 

1881 

A.  E.  Parker 

31.5 

14.3 

13., 58 

69.4 

9.00 

2444 

1889 

William  Barclay 

14.7 

16.2 

15.39 

78.2 

12.00 

3695 

1891 

James  Barclay 

19.43 

21.3 

20.23 

82.88 

20.00 

8092 

1903 

C.  M.  Larkin 

10.8 

16.88 

16.00 

80.00 

1907 

W.  H.  Bostic 

24.9 

19.5 

18.52 

78.3 

20.00 

7408 

1934 

C.  H.  Bostic 

9.4 

15 . 5 

14.72 

67.1 

1935 

W.  F.  Gibson 

35.5 

18.00 

17.1 

74.4 

24.00 

8208 

1936 

Lucy  H.  Smith 

28.00 

20.1 

19.09 

83.7 

20.00 

76.36 

1937 

Hugh  Morrow j 

26.5 

19.7 

18.71 

74.5 

15.00 

5613 

1938 

R.  B.  Teesdale 

1 

18.8 

17.86 

85.4 

25.00 

8930 

19,39 

E.  T.  Bostic 

28.50 

21  9 

20.8 

88.3 

1940 

J.  R.  Stevens 

55.0 

14.81 

14.06 

77.4 

15.00 

4218 

1941 

S.  H.  Mendenhall 

14.8 

18.11 

17.2 

83.8 

20.00 

6880 

1942 

Thomas  Barnett 

20.8 

16.5 

15.67 

80.00 

12.00 

3760 

1943 

A.  G.  Duffield 

32.00 

17.8 

16.9 

83.00 

25.00 

8450 

1944 

L.  G.  Preno 

24.5 

17.9 

17.00 

79.6 

20.00 

6800 

1945 

F.  O.  .Tennings 

31  00 

17.6 

16.7 

75 . 00 

1946 

B.  F.  Bayler 

33  00 

22.7 

21 . 56 

85.3 

1947 

Richard  Barrows 

25.5 

18.6 

17.67 

82.00 

20.00 

7068 

1952 

I.  A.  Goff  * 

11.6  . 

13.4 

12.73 

74.44 

12.00 

.3055 

1953 

F,  E.  Stevens 

21.00 

16.00 

15.20 

82.05 

25.00 

7600 

1954 

Frank  Hiser 

9.2 

19.3 

18.33 

84.65 

15.00 

5499 

1955 

E.  D.  Lovegreen 

14.33 

16.3 

15.48 

77.94 

15.00 

4644 

1956 

E.  T.  Preuitt  

18.66 

19.1 

18.14 

86.80 

20.00 

7256 

1957 

W.  A.  Cowan* 

21.00 

16.8 

15.96 

80.00 

1958 

E.  Cowan 

15.4 

19.8 

18.81 

90.00 

20.00 

7524 

1959 

N.  Webber 

18.6 

18.7 

17.76 

86.12 

1960 

C.  M.  Laughery 

17.5 

19.9 

18.90 

88.83 

20.00 

7560 

1961 

T.  E.pStearns 

18.66 

14.7 

13.96 

76.96 

1950 

R.  A . Duncan  

25.00 

17.7 

16.8 

80.00 

t P.  O.  address  is  Rockvale. 


.54 


MONTANA  EXPEKIMENT  STATION. 


RESULTS  IN  1901.— BITTER  ROOT  STOCK  FARM.— HAMILTON, 

MONTANA 


Laboratory 

No. 

Locality 

Average 

1 weight  in  oz. 

1 

Sugar 

in  juice 

Sugar 

in  beet 

Purity 

1 Coef. 

1 

Tons  boets 

per  acre 

1 

Lbs.  sugar 

per  acre 

1855 

Hamilton  Ranch,  No.  1 

17  8 

2C.1 

19.09 

87.3 

18.9 

7216 

1856 

Hamilton  Ranch,  No.  2 

16.6 

19.3 

18.33 

86.9 

13.6 

4985 

1857 

Hamilton  Ranch,  No.  3 

15.2 

20.1 

19.9 

82.4 

22.00 

8756 

1858 

Hamilton  Ranch,  No.  4 

8.8 

21.1 

20.04 

87.5 

12.7 

5090 

1859 

Gilchrist  Ranch,  No.  1 

11.00 

20.6 

19.57 

88.4 

18.4 

7201 

1860 

Gilchrist  Ranch,  No.  2 

11.6 

22.00 

20.9 

91.2 

1861 

Prendergast  Ranch,  No.  1 

11.8 

19.8 

18.81 

87.6 

20.00 

7524 

1862 

Prendergast  Ranch,  No.  2 

13.6 

22.1 

20.99 

92.00 

18.00 

7556 

1863 

Lower  Ward  Ranch,  No.  1 

13.00 

21.1 

20.04 

90.6 

18.3 

7334 

1864 

Lower  Ward  Ranch,  No.  2 

12.4 

20.8 

19.76 

89.2 

14.00 

5532 

1865 

Upper  Ward  Ranch,  No.  1 

13.4 

20.3 

19.28 

87.5 

12.00 

4627 

1866 

Ravalli  Ranch 

13.00 

20.2 

19.19 

90.00 

14.6 

5603 

1867 

Corvallis  Ranch 

15.6 

20.4 

19.38 

86.4 

25.6 

9922 

LOCALITY  AVERAGES  FOR  1901 


Locality 


Cascade  County  (1)  .... 
Yellowstone  County. . . . 

Flathead  County 

Valley  County  (1) 

Park  County  (2) 

Custer  County  (1) 

Dawson  County  (1) 

Powell  County 

Fergus  County 

Jefferson  County 

Carbon  County  (3) 

Missoula  County 

Ravalli  County  (4) 

Gallatin  County  (5)  . . . . 
Bitter  Root  Stock  Farm 

Experiment  Farm 

Clark’s  Fork  Valley. . . . 


Average 
weight  in  oz. 

1 

Sugar 
in  juice 

Sugar 
in  beet 

1 

Purity 

Coef. 

Tons  beets 
per  acre 

1 

1 Lbs.  sugar 
per  acre 

24.5 

16.25 

15.4 

75.4 

25.00 

8075 

35.66 

10.50 

10.00 

62.6 

16.45 

18.9 

17.95 

82.24 

12.8 

4520 

19.40 

15.2 

14.43 

82.7 

20.00 

5968 

19.5 

16.66 

15.94 

73.07 

20.5 

6498 

16.00 

18.4 

17.5 

78.00 

18.6 

14.00 

13.3 

76.5 

21.9 

15.6 

14.86 

81.8 

17.00 

15.4 

14.63 

71.6 

23.00 

7552 

23.00 

13.50 

12.82 

83.00 

29.2 

13.9 

13.2 

66.5 

16.00 

4244 

16.7 

17.3 

16.46 

83.00 

13.00 

4288 

16.8 

17.8 

16  96 

82.45 

22.88 

15.46- 

14.68 

78.9 

31.00 

9332 

13.37 

20.60 

19.64 

87.46 

16.5 

6771 

19.37 

17.88 

16.98 

84.9 

10.9 

3690 

22.7 

17.84 

16.97 

80.5 

18.00 

6174 

(1) .  One  lot  only. 

(2) .  One  locality  only. 

(3) .  Excluding  Clark’s  Fork  Valley. 

(4) .  Excluding  Bitter  Root  Stock  Farm. 
(5.)  Excluding  Experiment  Farm. 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


55 


On  the  whole  the  results  of  the  experiments  in  1903  are  unsatis- 
factory. This  view  is  forced  upon  one  after  a study  of  the  results  in 
preceding  years,  especially  those  of  the  year  1901,  some  of  which  are 
included  in  this  bulletin  for  comparison  with  the  work  of  the  past 
season. 

These  results  are  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  even  less  interest 
than  usual  has  been  given  to  the  culture  of  beets  during  the  past  year. 
This  lack  of  interest  is  due  mainly  to  the  fact  that  notwithstanding  the 
excellent  results  obtained  in  the  past,  no  market  for  beets,  through  the 
establishment  of  a factory  in  Montana,  has  yet  been  made,  and  in  con- 
sequence beets  have  received  but  scant  attention, 

It  is  said  that  “figures  speak  for  themselves,”  and  certainly  the 
results  presented  show  that  under  proper  attention  Montana  can  hold 
its  own  as  a beet  sugar  producing  state. 

With  the  figures  presented  for  many  years  past  by  the  Montana 
Experiment  Station,  why  is  it  that  we  are  not  producing  our  own 
sugar? 

I am  indebted  to  “Beet  Sugar  Points,”  and  to  articles  by  Mr. 
Thomas  Tonge  for  much  of  the  matter  of  a general  nature  introduced 
into  this  bulletin,  to  Prof.  Linfield,  Agriculturist  of  the  Station,  for 
supervision  of  the  variety  tests,  and  to  Mr.  Edmund  Burke,  assistant 
chemist,  for  the  analytical  work  on  all  the  beets  submitted. 

For  additional  information  concerning  results  obtained  in  Mon- 
tana in  former  years,  readers  of  this  bulletin  are  referred  to  Bulle- 
tins 19,  33  and  41  of  the  Montana  Experiment  Station. 


INDEX 


= ^ ' PAGE 

Eequisits  for  Locating  Factory 

Factory  Site 

Procedure  to  Secure  a Factory... i 

Cost  of  Operation ; 

Beet  Culture 

General  Directions  for  Seeding  and  Cultivating 

Method  of  Growing  Beets 

Preparing  the  Seed  Bed 

The  Seed , 

Planting 

Germination f 

Bunching  and  Thinning 

Cultivating ; 

Irrigation  

Harvesting 

Topping 

Siloing 

General  Data  Condensed 

Refineries  vs.  Home  Grown  Sugar 

The  Future  Prospects 

Statistical 

Present  Sources  of  World’s  Sugar  Supply ' 

Increase  in  Beet  Sugar  Production ; 

Detailed  Supply  of  the  United  States  for  1901 .• 

Average  increase  of  Total  Sugar  Consumption  per  Year  for  20  Years 

Sugar  Consumption  of  Dominion  of  Canada  for  1900  With  Source  of  Supply 

Factory  at  Loveland,  Colo 

Factory  at  Sugar  City,  Colo L. 

Factory  in  the  Greeley  District 

High  Wheat  Average  in  Beet  District 

Beet  Sugar  Factory,  Capacity  of 

Wide  Territory  Covered  by  Factory 

Cost  of  Production  of  Beet 

Sheep  Industry  at  Factory  . 

Eaton,  Colo 

A Great  Farming  Country 

The  Eaton  Sugar  Co 

Fortunes  Paid  Out  by  Co 

Some  Good  Returns  to  Farmers 

Some  German  Figures  on  Soil  Exhaustion 

Report  on  Crop  of  1903 

Table  of  Composition,  Yield  and  Value 

Table  of  Culture  Notes 

Experiment  Station.— Variety  Tests 

Variety  Tests. — Experiment  Station. — Culture  Notes 

Experiment  Station  Variety  Tests. — Variety  Averages 

Experiment  Station  Variety  Tests — Season  1901  

Averages  of  all  Tests— Experiment  Station,— Season  1901 

Averages  of  Successive  Dates.—  Experiment  Station,. -Season  1901 

Results  in  1901— Clark’s  Forks,  Bridger  and  Gebo 

Results  in  1901— Bitter  Root  Stock  Farm — Hamilton,  Mont 

Locality  Averages  for  1901 


NO. 

. 6 

. 8 

. 8 

. 10 

. 13 

. 13 

. 13 

. 15 

. 15 

. 15 

. 16 

. 16 

. n 

. 17 

. 17 

. 17 

. 18 

. 20 

. 21 

22 

. 24 

. 24 

. 25 

. 25 

. 25 

. 26 

. 26 

. 27 

. 32 

. 33 

. 34 

. 34 

. 35 

. 36 

. 36 

. 36 

. 37 

. 38 

. 39 

. 40 

. 42 

. 42 

. 44 

. 46 

. 48 

. 49 

. 51 

. '52 

. 52 

. 53 

. 54 

. 54 


Montana  Agricultural  College 
Experiment  Station 

F,  B.  LINFIELD,  Director. 


BXTLLETirsr  NO. 


CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES; 

ORGANIZATION,  BUILDING  AND  EQUIPHENT 


Dairy  Building —Montana  Experiment  Station. 


BY 

W.  J.  ELLIOXX, 

An.^istant  Dairyman. 


BOZEMAN,  MONTANA: 

THE  AVANT  COUllIER  PUBIASHINO  CO. 

AUGUST.  lOOT. 


MONTANA  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 
EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

BOZEMAN,  nONTANA. 


STATE  BOARD  OE  EDUCATION. 


Joseph  K.  Toole,  Governor,  \ 

James  Donovan,  A ttorrzeju-Gerzera/,  > 

W.  W.  Welch,  Swpt.  of  Public  Instruction,  j 

Ex-Officio  Helena 

J.  M.  Evans,  . . . 

Missoula 

C.  R.  Leonard, 

Butte 

N.  W.  McConnell, 

Helena 

W.  M.  Johnston, 

Billings 

0.  P.  Chisholm, 

Bozeman 

J.  G.  McKay,  .... 

Hamilton 

b.  T.  Paul, 

Dillon 

N.  B.  Holter, 

Helena 

EXECUTIVE  BOARD. 

Walter  S.  Hartman,  President, 

Bozeman 

E.  B.  Lamme,  Vice-President, 

Bozeman 

Peter  Koch,  Secretary, 

Bozeman 

John  Maxey, 

Bozeman 

John  M.  Robinson, 

Bozeman 

STATION  STAEE. 


F.  B.  Linfield,  B.  S.  A..  Director  and  Agriculturist. 

J.  W.  Blankinship,  Ph.  D.,  Botanist. 

R.  A.  Cooley,  B.  Sc.,  Entomologist. 

V.  K.  Chesnut,  B.  Sc.,  Chemist. 

J.  S.  Baker,  B.  S.,  Irrigation  Engineer. 

R.  W.  Fisher,  B.  S.,  Horticulturist. 

Edmund  Burke,  Assistant  Chemist. 

W.  J.  Elliott,  B.  S.  A.,  Assistant  Dairyman. 

Alfred  Atkinson,  B.  S.  A.,  Assistant  Agronomist. 

H.  J.  Reese,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Chemist. 

Postoffice,  Express  and  Freight  Station,  Bozeman. 

All  communications  to  the  Experiment  Station  should  be  ad- 
dressed to 

THE  MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

Bozeman,  Montana. 

NOTICE. — The  Bulletins  olThe  Experiment  Station  will  be  mailed  free  to  any  citizen 
of  Montana  on  request.  Please  state  whether  all  i)ublications  arc  desired  as  issued  or  only 
those  specified.  Give  name  and  address  plainly. 


Montana  Experiment  Station. 

Bulletin  No.  53. 


CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES 


THEIR  ORGANIZATION,  BUILDING  AND  EQUIPMENT. 


Dairying  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  an  industry  in  Montana, 
though  the  natural  facilities,  climate,  soil,  water  and  feed,  as  well  as 
the  market,  are  very  favorable  indeed.  Montana  probably  offers  as 
good  prices  for  dairy  products  as  an}^  state  in  the  Uniofi  and  very 
much  bettet  than  most  of  the  states,  yet  there  are  millions  of  pounds 
of  butter  and  cheese  imported  into  the  state  annually.  There  are 
probably  several  reasons  for  this.  As  a rule  the  farms  in  Montana 
are  large  and  much  hired  help  has  to  be  depended  upon.  The  suc- 
cessful herd  requires  the  careful  supervision  of  the  owner  which 
is  generalise  possible  only  on  the  smaller  farms.  Montana  farms  are^ 
productive  and  her  farmers  have,  been  content  with  the  smaller  re- 
turns rather  than  undertake  the  more  exacting  demands  of  dairy 
work.  The  profitable  dairy  herd  produces  milk  the  year  round  and’ 
some  of  the  cows  have  to  be  milked  365  days  in  the  year,  morning 
and  evening.  Though  the  income  is  substantial  many 
will  not  try  to  increase  it  at  the  cost  of  the  extra  tax  on  their  time 
and  attention. 

That  the  dairy  industry  may  be  attended  with  marked  success 
in  Montana,  there  is  ample  evidence  to  prove.  A dairy  herd  in  thq 
Gallatin  valley  last  year  returned  its  owner  $65  from  each  cow, 
The  feed  at  market  prices  cost  not  to  exceed  $30  for  each  cow.  On 
this  basis,  by  selling  the  feed  to  the  cows  the  returns  of  the  farm 
were  more  than  doubled  as  compared  to  selling  the  crop  off  the 
farm.  These  returns  indicate  a good  dairy  herd,  but  that  is  the  only 
kind  with  which  a person  should  attempt  the  business. 


60 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  DAIRYING. 

'When  we  consider  that  the  value  of  the  dairy  products  in 
the  United  States  amounts  to  the  enormous  sum  of  four  hundred 
and  fifty  million  dollars  each  year,  we  see  at  once  that  it  is  one  of 
the  largest  branches  of  agriculture.  Its  advantages  to  those  en- 
gaging in  n are  manv.  In  the  first  place  it  is  a cash  business  and  also 
a business  from  which  there  is  a little  ready  money  coming  in  all  the 
year  round,  which  is  infinitely  better,  both  for  the  farmer  and  the 
merchant,  than  having  one  to  two  pay  days  a year,  for  instance, 
When  the  grain  is  threshed  and  drawn  to  market,  or  live  stock  sold. 
Another  point  is  that  it  gives  employment  all  the  year  round.  Just 
think  of  “he  exclusive  grain  growing  practice  for  a moment  and 
note  how  all  the  wvrk  of  the  year  is  rushed  into  a few  weeks  in  the 
hottest  part  of  the  summer,  when  it  is  almost  impossible  to  get 
competent  help.  Right  there  is  where  the  dairy  industry  is  a boon 
to  the  farmers’  sons.  It  gives  them  something  that  pays  well  for 
their  time  and  employment  all  the  year  round.  In  other  words,  it 
keeps  the  farmer  and  his  family  busy.  They  do  not  need  to  seek 
employment  in  the  city.  It  keeps  the  boy  on  the  farm. 

Another  advantage  of  the  dairy  industry  for  Montana  is  that 
there  are  not  long  freight  hauls  to  market.  There  is  an  unlimited 
market  riglit  at  home,  with  prices  for  butter  and  cheese  that  excel 
those  of  almost  any  other  state  in  the  Union.  In  addition  there  is 
a fine  climate,  pure  water,  and  as  good  feed  as  can  be  grown  any- 
where. All  these  are  prime  essentials  for  high  quality  butter  and 
cheese. 

One  of  the  questions  that  we  generally  meet  with  is,  ‘‘What  is 
the  use  of  starting  a creamery  to  make  more  butter,  when  we  can- 
not find  a market  for  that  which  we  are  making  on  our  ranches 
now?”  The  reason  that  a ready  market  cannot  be  found  for  the 
ranch  butter  is  simply  because  it  is  hard  to  find  any  two  lots  of  but- 
ter in  a community  that  are  exactly  the  same  in  every  respect.  But 
where  all  the  farmers  bring  their  cream  or  milk  to  a central  plant, 
and  have  a skilled  butter  or  cheese  maker  turn  out  a uniform  arti- 
cle, there  is  not  the  least  difficulty  in  disposing,  right  in  our  own 
state,  of  all  the  butter  and  cheese  that  fifty  plants  could  turn  out. 


. CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES. 


61 


CAUTION. 

We  do  not  wish  for  a moment  to  give  only  the  bright  side  of 
the  dairy  industry,  tor  there  is  a “work”  side  also.  It  is  just  like  any 
other  business.  To  make  money  out  of  it  requires  care  and  at- 
tention. 

It  requires  care  and  selection  in  handling  the  cows,  care  in  the 
feeding,  care  in  the  handling  of  the  milk,  and  care  over  all  these 
things  for  twelve  months  in  the  year. 

But  there  is  no  other  branch  of  farm  work  that  will  pay  better, 
for  the  care  and  attention  you  give  it,  than  the  dairy  business.  Far 
better  than  selling  the  farm  crops  at  the  prevalent  market  prices, 
sell  them  through  the  cow  and  the  milk  pail,  and  you  will  realize 
just  double  market  prices  for  your  crop. 

The  creamery  or  cheese  factory  business  like  any  other  manu- 
facturing business,  requires  a certain  amount  of  raw  material  before 
the  plant  can  be  run  successfully.  A lack  in  the  milk  supply  is  per- 
haps the  cause  of  more  new  creameries  failing  than  any  other. 
The  first  thing  in  starting  a factory  therefore  is  to  find  out  if  tliere  is 
sufficient  milk  with  which  to  keep  the  plant  running  the  year  round. 
Those  interested  must  have  an  absolute  guarantee  of  the  milk  from 
300  cows  fcr  a creamery  and  150  to  200  for  a cheese  factory,  with 
prospects  that  this  number  will  be  increased  as  rapidly  as  possible 
in  the  near  future.  If  the  milk  from  about  this  number  of  cows  can- 
not be  guaranteed  it  will  be  good  business  to  let  the  creamery  pro- 
ject rest  for  a time.  No  creamery,  however  well  equipped  or  managed, 
can  make  any  money  for  its  owners  or  patrons  with  but  one  to 
two  thousand  pounds  of  milk  a day. 

When  the  farmers  own  the  plant  and  enter  into  a written  con- 
tract with  each  other  to  supply  the  milk  from  the  requisite  number 
of  cows,  under  good  management  the  factory  cannot  fail  to  succeed^ 

Because  of  the  above  facts  and  of  the  large  number  of  inquiriesi 
that  are  coming  into  the  office,  with  reference  to  the  building  and 
equipping  of  creameries  and  cheese  factories,  it  was  thought  advis- 
able to  prepare  this  bulletin,  which  we  trust  may  be  usef’il  to  those 
who  are  thinking  of  erecting  such  plants. 


62 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Plans  and  specifications  are  given  for  an  iip-to  date  creamery 
and  cheese  factory,  and  also  complete  lists  of  machinery  for  both. 
These  plans  we  have  found  after  ten  years  of  practical  work  in  such 
plants  to  be  well  adapted  for  the  purpose,  and  not  only  that,  but 
every  article  mentioned  is  necessary  for  the  successful  opera- 
tion of  either  plant. 

In  the  descriptions  which  follow  the  object  has  been  to  give 
clear  and  condensed  plans  and  specifications,  and  also  a complete 
list  of  machinery  for  an  up-to-date,  thoroughly  equipped  butter  and 
cheese  factory. 

On  the  following  pages  will  be  found  plans  for  what  we  consid- 
er a model  creamerv  and  cheese  factory.  These  plans  combine  the 
best  points  of  sever  al  creameries  and  cheese  factories.  Blue  prints 
of  these  plans  may  be  had  on  application  to  the  Station. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  CREAMERIES  OR  CHEESE 
f FACTORIES. 

If  the  required  number  of  cows  are  found,  within  the  pre- 
scribed limits,  the  next  thing  is  organization. 

Montana,  Minnesota,  North  and  South  Dakota  have  laws  which 
should  be  followed  in  forming  corporations.  The  best  plan  is  to 
have  some  attorney  draw  up  the  necessary  corporation  papers,  if 
you  desire  to  incorporate. 

The  laws  of  the  state  of  Montana,  however,  permit  the  organi- 
zation of  cooperative  creameries  and  cheese  factories  without  the 
necessity  of  incorporating.  Any  attorney  can  draw  up  the  necessary 
agreement,  or  you  will  find  elsewhere  in  this  bulletin  a copy  of 
agreement,  constitution  and  by-laws,  that  are  recommended. 

FORM  YOUR  OWN  ORGANIZATION. 

By  all  means,  however,  form  your  own  organization,  and  do 
not  be  led  by  the  b-gent  of  any  creamery  supply  house  into  a plan 
whereby  he  organizes  you  into  a company,  builds  your  creamery, 
equips  it  and  turns  it  over  to  you  in  complete  running  order.  This 
is  the  rock  on  which  m.ost  of  the  creameries  that  have  failed  have 


jOA, 


4^  r**- 


66 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Split.  The  agricultural  and  dairy  papers  have  for  years  been  teem- 
ing with  exposures  of  this  swindle  of  ready  built  creameries ; but 
every  year  seems  to  find  a new  crop  of  people  ready  to  bite.  And 
the  consequence  ls  the  country  is  dotted  with  expensive  worthless 
creameries  standing  idle.  ■ 

The  leading  creamery  supply  houses  do  not  undertake  to  organ- 
ize and  build  a creamery.  Their  business  is  to  furnish  the  machin- 
ery only,  but  there  are  one  or  two  houses  that  have  agents  con- 
stantly going  through  the  countiy  offering  to  work  up  a creamery 
company  in  any  neighborhood,  soliciting  stock  and  getting  up  the 
articles  of  incorporation,  building  the  creamery  and  equipping  it 
and  turning  it  over  to  an  association  of  farmers  at  a given  price. 

This,  of  course,  seems  like  a very  nice  way,  as  it  relieves  the 
members  of  the  creamery  association  of  all  the  preliminary  work 
and  the  organization  of  the  creamery,  but  you  can  rest  assured  no 
one  is  going  to  do  this  work  for  nothing,  and  no  outside  parties 
can  do  this  as  cheaply  and  effectively  as  you  can  do  it  yourselves. 

When  any  man  comes  along  offering  to  organize  a creamery 
company,  solicit  stock,  draw  the  papers,  build  the  building,  and* 
equip  it,  turning  it  over  to  you  a ready  built  creamery,  and  taking  all 
the  work  of  organization  off  your  hands,  look  with  suspicion  upon 
the  project.  He  isn't  working  for  his  health,  but  is  doubtless  draw- 
ing a big  salary  to  do  work  you  can  just  as  well  do  yourselves.  No 
outside  company  ran  go  into  a neighborhood  and  spend  the  time 
necessary  to  work  .ip  a company,  build  and  equip  a creamery,  pay 
salaries,  traveling  expenses  and  hotel  board  for  nothing,  and  they 
usually  get  a good  large  profit  on  top  of  the  expenses  made.  There- 
fore, we  repeat,  form  your  own  organization,  and  build  the  cream- 
ery yourselves. 

Keep  your  business  in  your  own  hands  and  don't  sign  away  your 
rights  to  organize  and  build  your  own  business  and  give  the  benefit 
of  what  profit  there  may  be  in  it  to  others. 

HOW  TO  RAISE  THE  MONEY. 


The  old  plan  for  building  factories  was  for  each  patron  to  take 
one  or  more  shares  of  stock,  paying  the  cash  for  them.  In  many 


CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES. 


67 


instances  it  has  been  found  difficult  to  raise  the  money  under  this 
plan,  as  many  desirable  patrons  were  unable  to  raise  the  amount 
of  cash  re'^uired  to  build  and  equip  the  plant. 

To  overcome  this  difficulty  a plan  was  devised  which  has  been 
used  by  a great  t.-^any  companies  with  very  satisfactory  results. 
This  plan  is  as  follows:  Let  each  patron  of  the  proposed  creamery 
sign  an  agreement  similar  to  that  drawn  on  page  68  marked  “Or- 
ganization Agreement,”  signing  his  name  and  the  number  of  cows 
he  will  agiee  to  milk  for  the  creamery  or  cheese  factory. 

You  will  notice  this  agreement  provides  for  borrowing  the 
amount  of  money  necessary  to  build  the  creamery,  and  that  each 
person  signing  the  agreement  agrees  to  be  personally  responsible  , 
for  the  payment  of  the  sum  borrowed. 

There  is  hardly  a community  in  the  state  in  which  some  one 
cannot  be  found  to  loan  $2500  (cheese  factory)  to  $4500  (creamery) 
to  an  association  of  twenty-five  or  fifty  or  more,  farmers  each  one 
of  whom  agrees  to  be  personally  responsible  for  the  loan. 

When  the  required  number  of  patrons  and  cows  have  been  se- 
cured, call  a meeting  of  the  patrons  and  perfect  the  organization,  by 
adopting  and  signing  articles  of  agreement. 

We  give  on  page  68  articles  of  agreement  and  by-laws  which 
have  been  used  in  a great  many  creameries  and  cheese  factories  and 
have  been  found  very  satisfactory.  Of  course  such  changes  could 
be  made  in  these  as  might  be  desired. 

You  will  notice  that  Article  Two  of  the  by-laws  provides  that 
5 cents  on  each  hundred  pounds  of  milk  received  at  the  creamery 
shall  be  retained  10  form  a sinking  fund  to  be  used  to  pay  off  the 
money  borrowed,  .md  that  Article  Four  of  the  agreement  author- 
izes the  board  of  directors  to  borrow  the  sum  required,  the  loan  to 
be  paid  back  out  of  the  sinking  fund  as  fast  as  it  accumulates. 

This  plan  enables  the  creamery  company  to  start  without  the 
individual  patrons  being  required  to  raise  the  cash;  and  at  the  same 
time  it  gives  the  creamery  the  ready  cash  to  buy  their  lumber,  ma- 
terial and  machine!}'  so  as  to  obtain  the  benefit  of  the  lowest  cash 
prices. 

The  five  cents  per  hundred  pounds  that  is  deducted  from  the 
amount  of  milk  taken  to  the  creamery  is  not  felt  by  the  patrons,  as 


68 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


even  after  this  is  taken  out  they  will  get  more  out  of  their  milk 
than  they  have  been  getting  by  making  it  into  butter  and  cheese 
themselves,  so  the  creamery  is  gradually  paying  for  itself  without 
expense  to  the  patrons. 

Under  this  plan  a creamery  that  is  receiving  milk  from  300 
cows  shouid  be  get^uig  six  thousand  pounds  of  milk  a day;  if  five 
cents  per  hundred  of  this  went  into  the  sinking  fund,  it  would  be 
three  dollars  a day;  so  that  it  would  require  from  two  years  and  a 
half  to  four  years  to  pay  off  the  loan,  and  have  the  creamery  clear 
under  this  plan,  on  a creamery  receiving  the  amount  of  milk  stated. 
By  this  means  also  the  factory  is  paid  for  and  the  patron  practically 
does  not  feel  it  at  all. 

We  give  below  a draft  of  organization  agreement,  articles  of 
agreement,  and  by-laws  which  can  be  used  as  a guide  and  changed 
or  modified  as  desired. 

ORGANIZATION  AGREEMENT. 

We,  the  undersigned  citizens  of county.  State  of 

Montana,  do  hereby  agree  to  form  themselves  into  an  association  to 

be  known  by  the  name  of Association,  and  we  agree 

to  borrow  the  sum  of dollars  or  less,  to  put  up  a building 

and  equip  it  with  the  necessary  machinery,  and  jointly  to  become 
personally  responsible  for  the  sum  borrowed  including  interest.  The 
money  to  be  raised  in  the  manner  agreed  upon  by  the  association. 
We  also  agree  to  furnish  the  milk  from  the  number  of  cows  oppo- 
site our  names. 

Name Cows 

ARTICLES  OF  INCORPORATION. 


We,  whose  names  are  hereto  subscribed,  and  whose  residences 

are  within  the  county  of in  the  state  of 

Montana,  do  hereby  associate  ourselves  together  as  a cooperative 
association  under  ihe  laws  of  the  state  of  Montana,  to  which  we 
have  adopted  the  following  constitution,  viz.: 


CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES. 


69 


ARTICLE  1. 

The  name  of  the  association  will  be  the 

Association,  and  its  place  of  business  shall  be  at  or  near  Section.  . . . 
in  the  town  of in  said county. 

article  II. 

The  i.»bject  of  this  Association  shall  be  the  rnanufacture  of 
butter  and  cheese  .>r  both  from  whole  milk,  at  actual  cost. 

ARTICLE  III. 

The  odicers  of  ihis  Association  shall  be  a President,  Vice  Presi- 
dent, Secretary,  Treasurer  and  three  trustees,  who  shall  be  elected 
annually  at  the  regular  annual  meeting  of  the  Association  to  be  held 
on  the  first  Monday  of  January  of  each  year,  and  their  term  of  office 
shall  be  one  year  and  until  their  successors  shall  have  been  duly 
elected  and  have  qualified. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

The  duties  of  tlie  respective  officers  shall  be  as  follows:  The 
President  shall  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the 'Association.  He  shall 
have  power  to  call  special  meetings  of  the  Association  whenever  in 
his  judgment  requi'*ed  by  the  business  of  the  Association  or  upon 
the  written  request  of  five  or  more  members. 

The  Vice  President  shall  perform  the  duties  of  the  President 
when  he  is  absent  or  otherwise  unable  to  attend  to  them. 

The  Secretary  shall  keep  a record  of  all  the  meetings  of  the 
Association,  and  make  and  sign  all  orders  upon  the  Treasurer  and 
pay  over  to  the  Treasurer  all  money  which  comes  into  his  posses- 
sion, taking  the  Treasurer’s  receipt  therefor. 

The  Treasurer  shall  receive  and  receipt  for  all  moneys  belong- 
ing to  the  Association,  and  pay  out  the  same  only  upon  orders  which 
shall  be  signed  by  the  Secretarry.  The  Secretary  and  Treasurer 
shall  give  bonds  in  such  amount  as  the  Association  shall  provide. 

The  President,  Vice  President,  Secretary  and  Treasurer  and 
three  trustees  shall  constitute  the  Board  of  Directors,  whose  duties 
shall  be  to  audit  ;ind  allow  all  just  claims  against  the  Association. 
They  shall  compute  the  amount  of  milk  receipts,  the  amount  of 


70 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


product  sold,  and  the  moneys  received  therefor,  and,  after  deducting^ 
from  the  total  receipts  the  percentage  herein  provided  for  as  a sink- 
ing fund  and  also  the  running  expenses,  on  the  15th  day  of  each 
month,  divide  the  remaining  receipts  of  the  preceding  month  among 
the  members  and  ja'itrons  of  the  Association,  proportionately  to  the 
amount  of  whole  milk  or  fat  furnished  by  each.  Provided,  how- 
ever, that  in  case  of  withdrawal  of  any  member  from  this  Associa- 
tion before  the  moneys  herein  pfbvided  to  be  borrowed  shall  have 
been  paid  in  full,  principal  and  interest,  all  product  from  milk  fur- 
nished by  such  withdrawing  members  then  on  hand,  and  any  mon- 
eys received  from  such  product  then  in  the  possession  of  the  Asso- 
ciation, shall  be  retained  until  all  said  moneys  so  borrowed  shall 
have  been  fully  repaid,  and  thereafter  said  moneys,  or  any  remainder 
thereof  after  applying  the  just  share  of  such  withdrawing  mem-^ 
bers  therefrom  to  the  repayment  of  any  balance  of  such  indebtedness 
not  paid  from  the  sinking  fund,  shall  be  paid  over  to  him  or  his- 
assigns. 

The  Board  of  Directors  shall  cause  the  Secretary  to  make  in 
writing,  a report  to  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Association,  setting 
forth  in  detail  the  gross  amount  of  milk  receipts,  the  net  amount  of 
receipts  from  all  products  sold  and  all  other  receipts,  the  amount 
paid  out  'or  running  expenses,  the  sums,  if  any,  paid  out  for  milk,, 
and  all  other  matttu's  pertaining  to  the  business  of  the  Association. 
A like  statement,  containing  the  gross  amount  of  milk  receipts,  the 
net  receipts  from  products  sold  and  all  running  expenses  of  the 
cream f'^y  shall  be  made  each  month  and  posted  conspicuously  in 
the  creamery  building  at  the  time  of  the  division  of  the  prior  month’s 
receipts  as  aforesaid. 

The  .Board  of  Directors  shall  borrow  a sum  of  money  not  ex- 
ceeding  thousand  dollars,  to  be  used  by  them  in  the 

erection  and  completion  and  furnishing  of  the  creamery  building 
and  for  no  ether  purpose.  Said  members  of  said  board  may  borrow 
said  money  on  their  own  responsibility,  and  in  case  they  do  so,  then 
the  sinking  fund  herein  provided  for  shall  by  them  be  applied  in 
payment  of  said  borrowed  moneys  as  the  same  fall  due  in  the  same 
manner  as  though  said  moneys  had  been  borrowed  by  the  Associa- 
tion. Said  members  of  the  board  shall  in  such  case  be  held  to  be 


CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES. 


71 


creditors  of  the  Association  to  the  amount  of  such  moneys  unpaid, 
and  the  several  members  of  said  Association  shall  be  personally 
responsible,  jointly  and  severally,  for  the  same.  Provided,  however, 
that  prior  to  any  legal  assertion  of  such  individual  responsibility, 
the  entire  sinking  fund  then  accrued  and  on  hand  shall  be  applied 
upon  such  indebtedness.  And,  provided,  further,  that  said  mem- 
bers so  borrowing  said  moneys  may,  if  they  so  elect,  demand  and 
receive  aii}^  part  or  all  of  the  moneys  received  from  the  products 
sold  then  'n  the  possession  of  the  Association,  upon  such  indebted- 
ness before  enforcing  such  personal  responsibility.  In  which  case 
only  that  part  of  such  indebtedness  remaining  after  applying  there- 
on all  sums  so  received  shall  be  recovered  or  demanded  from  the 
members  of  the  Association. 

ARTICLE  V. 

The  several  members  shall  furnish  all  the  milk 
from  all  the  cows  subscribed  by  each,  all  milk  to  be  sound, 
fresh,  unadulteratea,  pure  and  unskimmed,  and  patrons  of  the  As- 
sociation, not  members,  may  by  agreement  with  the  Board  of 
Trustees  furnish  such  amounts  of  milk  as  may  be  agreed  upon. 
The  Association  shall  receive  all  such  milk  so  furnished,  manufac- 
ture the  .same  into  butter,  cheese  or  other  products,  and  sell  and 
receive  all  moneys  from  the  product;  and  from  the  moneys  so  re- 
ceived deduct  such  a percentage  thereof  or  such  a number  of  cents 
per  one  hundred  pounds  of  milk  as  shall  have  been  agreed  upon  by 
the  Association  in  the  by-laws  or  otherwise,  and  also  deduct  the 
running  expenses  of  the  creamery,  the  remainder  thereof  to  be  dis- 
tributed as  provided  in  Article  TV  hereof. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

Each  member  shall  be  entitled  to  one  vote  only  at  any  meeting 
of  the  Association.  New  members  may  be  admitted  as  provided  in 
the  by-laws.  Members  shall  be  permitted  to  withdraw  only  as  pro- 
vided by  the  By-Laws. 


72 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


ARTICLE  VII. 


The  lirst  officers  and  Board  of  Trustees  shall  be  as  follows: 

President ; 

Vice  President ; 

‘ Secretary ; 

Treasurer; 


Trustees. 


ARTICLE  VIII. 

These  articles  may  be  amended  at  any  annual  meeting,  or  at 
any  special  meeting  called  for  that  purpose,  provided  that  two- 
thirds  of  al!  members  present  vote  in  favor  of  such  change ; and  pro- 
vided further,  that  at  least  one  month’s  notice  of  such  proposed 
amendment  shall  have  been  given  in  such  manner  as  may  be  pro- 
vided in  the  By-Laws,  or  otherwise  by  the  Association. 

BY-LAWS  OF ASSOCIATION. 


I. 

The  Secretary  and  Treasurer  shall  give  bonds  in  the  sum  of 
dollars,  both  bonds  to  be  approved  by  the  Board  of 

Directors. 

II. 

Five  cents  on  each  one  hundred  pounds  of  milk  received  at  the 
creamery  shall  be  reserved  to  foim  a sinking  fund. 

III. 

No  inllk  shall  be  received  or  business  of  any  kind  transacted 
at  the  creamery  on  .Sundays. 

IV. 

During  the  interval  between  the  20th  day  of  May  and  the  20th 
day  of  September  of  each  season  all  milk  shall  be  delivered  at  the 
creamery  as  early  at  least  as  nine  o’clock  a.  m.,  during  the  remain- 


CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES. 


73 


ing  portion  of  the  se.'ison  as  early  as  ten  o’clock  a.  m. 

V. 

All  milk  deliv^eiecl  shall  be  sweet  and  in  good  condition;  and 
if  any  be  found  otherwise,  the  operator  may  condemn  the  same,  and 
in  such  case  he  shall  notify  the  president  thereof.  The  operator  shall 
preserve  samples  of  every  delivery  of  each  patron’s 'milk,  testing  the 
same  at  proper  intervals  on  the  composite  testing  plan. 

VI. 

Any  member  or  patron  of  the  Association  found  skimming, 
watering  oi-  in  any  manner  adulterating  his  milk  offered  at  the 
creamery  rdrall  forfeit  to  the  Association  as  follows:  For  the  first 
offense,  ten  dollars:  for  the  second  offense,  twenty-five  dollars;  for 
the  third  offense,  he  or  she  shall  forfeit  all  interest  in  the  Associa- 
tion and  also  all  claims  for  milk  theretofore  delivered  to  the  Asso- 
ciation. But  no  such  forfeiture  shall  be  adjudged  without  first 
affording  to  the  member  or  patron  charged  with  so  having  skimmed, 
watered  or  adulterated  his  milk,  full  opportunity  to  defend  himself 
from  such  charge.  Any  member  sending  to  the  creamery  any  bloody 
or  unhealthy  milk,  or  any  milk  from  any  cow  within  four  days  after 
calving,  shall,  if  convicted  of  having  done  so  knowingly,  forfeit  as 
prescribed  above  in  this  section. 

VII. 

Members  and  patrons  furnishing  whole  milk  may  take  from  the 
separator  or  tank  at  the  creamery  four-fifths  of  the  quantity  of  milk 
(in  pounds  or  quantity)  delivered  at  the  creamery  by  them  on  that 
day.  Any  member  taking  therefrom  more  than  such  amount  shall 
forfeit  to  the  Association  the  sum  of  five  dollars  for  each  such 
taking. 

VIII. 

Withdrawals  from  the  Association  shall  be  allowed  only  as  fol- 
lows: The  member  desiring  to  withdraw  shall  give  at  least  one 
month’s  notice  of  his  application  therefor.  Such  application  shall 
only  be  allowed  on  a vote  of  two-thirds  of  all  members  present  and 
voting  at  any  meeting  or  hearing  at  which  such  application  shall 


74 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


have  been  noticed.  Provided,  however,  that  any  member  living  more 
than  three  miles  by  the  nearest  road  from  the  creamery  building, 
may  make  application  to  the  Board  of  Directors,  who,  in  their  dis- 
cretion, may  grant  permission  to  such  member  to  withdraw  from 
the  Association. 

IX. 

Any  member  refusing  to  deliver  at  the  creamery  the  amount 
agreed  to  be  there  delivered,  shall,  without  reasons  satisfactory 
therefor  to  the  Association,  forfeit  all  interest  in  the  pro- 
duct on  hand. 

X. 

Notice  of  any  proposed  amendment  to  the  Constitution  shall  be 
in  writing  or  printing  and  shall  be  kept  posted  prominently  in  the 
creamery  building  and  also  on  the  walls  of  the  delivery  department 
for  the  reception  of  milk. 

LOCATING  A CREAMERY. 

There  are  four  things  to  be  considered  in  locating  a creamery: 

First,  there  must  be  on  an  average  300  cows,  milking  for  three 
hundred  and  sixty-five  days  in  the  year,  within  a paying  hauling 
ladius  of  the  creamery,  (from  6 to  8 miles  on  each  side  of  the 
creamery). 

Second,  there  mi  st  be  pure  water. 

Third,  there  must  be  good  drainage. 

Fourth,  good  roads  by  which  the  patrons  may  reach  the  fac- 
tory are  very  essential. 


CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES. 


75 


GENERAL  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CREAMERY. 

1.  Trenches  shall  be  excavated  for  all  walls,  at  least  i foot  be- 
low the  natural  surface  of  the  ground. 

2.  Stonework.  All  foundations  and  piers  to  be  rubble  work, 
consisting  of  sound  local  stone  laid  in  lime  and  sand  mortar  mixed 
to  proper  proportions.  Sand  to  be  clean,  coarse  and  sharp.  Lime, 
fresh  local  lime.  All  walls  to  be  faced  on  outside,  slushed  up  and 
neatly  pointed.  All  walls  to  be  well  bonded  with  frequent  headers, 
and  the  angles  tied  v.dth  through  stone.  Stonework  to  be  6 inches 
above  ground  at  highest  point.  The  contractor  may  at  his  option 
use  concrete  in  place  of  stone  work,  of  proportions  hereinafter  spe- 
cified for  concrete  work. 

3.  Cement  Work.  All  cement  used  to  be  standard  grade  ce- 
ment. Engine  and  boiler  room  to  have  concrete  floors.  Also  con- 
crete foundation  for  separator,  said  foundation  to  be  started  i^ 
feet  below  the  natural  surface  of  ground. 

The  concrete  will  be  composed  of  one  part  cement  and  three 
parts  sand  and  five  parts  broken  stone  and  gravel,  tamped  in  place 
until  water  shows  on  the  surface. 

Top  coating  will  consist  of  one  part  cement  and  two  parts  clean 
sand,  free  from  loam, 'to  be  put  on  before  concrete  is  dry.  Surface 
to  be  troweled  smooth.  There  shall  be  proper  slope  to  the  concrete 
in  engine  and  boiler  room  for  drainage. 

5.  Carpenter  Work,  All  two  sash  windows  will  be  i^  thick, 
pine  or  fir,  and  free  from  imperfections  that  may  impair  its  strength. 

Building  to  be  substantially  framed  together  and  thoroughly 
nailed,  using  nails  of  suitable  size. 

Floor  joists  2x10-16  inch  on  centers. 

Rafters  2x6-24  inch  on  centers. 

Studding  2x4-16  inch  on  centers. 

All  partition  studding  to  be  2x4. 

Plates  2x4  double. 

Ceiling  joists  2x6-24  inch  centers. 

Truss  on  every  third  rafter  1x6  tie  and  2-1x6  studs. 

5.  Sheeting.  Cover  all  outside  walls  as  well  as  roof  with  i ' 


76 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


inch  surfaced  sheeting  well  nailed  to  every  bearing.  On  inside  ceil  up 
with  No.  2 1x6  M.  & D.,  all  except  coal  room  which  is  to  be  sheeted 
up  with  same  material  used  for  outside  sheeting. 

6.  Window  Frames.  All  sash  windows  will  be  thick 
and  have  frames  with  pockets  for  weights  and  good  axle  pulleys. 
There  will  be  2-inch  sides,  blind  stops,  pulley  stiles,  and  outside  cas- 
ing. All  windows  except  coal  room  to  contain  two  lights  24x30, 
windows  in  coal  room  to  be  hung  with  3x3  buts  and  to  have  hook 
fasteners. 

7.  Roof.  Covered  with  26  guage  metal  roof. 

8.  Paper.  Under  all  roofing  and  siding  cover  sheeting  with 
red  rosin  sized  building  paper,  well  lapped  and  brought  up  carefully 
to  cornice  and  frames. 

9.  Outside  Finish.  All  outside  finish  will  be  of  No.  2 pine 
free  from  pitch  and  loose  knots.  Corner  boards  and  base  will  be 
of  i-inch  stuff.  Cornice  to  consist  of  1x8  frieze,  1x12  plancia,  1x4 
facia,  3^4  inch  crown  moulding  and  2-inch  bed  mould. 

All  other  outside  finish  will  be  No.  2,  6-inch  rustic. 

10.  Ventilators.  To  consist  of  two  good  weather  proof  galvan- 
ized iron  ventilators  of  at  least  150  inch  capacity  each. 

11.  Flooring.  1x4  vertical  grain  Oregon  fir  over  all  except 
engine  and  boiler  room  and  coal  room. 

Coal  room  to  have  no  floor  but  leveled  up  with  ('ari'n  to  the 
level  of  engine  and  boiler  room  floor. 

There  will  be  a gutter  for  drainage  running  the  entire  length  of 
the  make  room  floor,  which  will  also  drain  the  engine  and  boiler 
looms  as  well  as  refrigerator  room. 

12.  Inside  Finish.  All  openings  to  be  cased  up  with  1x4  No. 
2 pine  for  paint. 

13.  Doors.  All  interior  doors  to  be  four  panel  1%  inch  No.  2 doors 
for  paint  with  2 feet  6 inch  by  6 feet  8 inch  openings.  Double 
doors  to  be  built  up  with  inch  stiles  and  rails,  halved  intersec- 
tions and  covered  on  opposite  side  with  No.  2 1x4  M.  & D.  and  to 
have  5 feet  by  7 feet  opening.  Double  door  in  milk  receiving  room 
to  have  2 feet  6 inch  by  3 feet  opening. 

14.  Sash.  All  sash  will  be  of  pine  inch  thick  and  glazed 
with  two  24  inch  by  30  inch  lights  as  shown,  with  good  quality 


CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES. 


77 


window  .^lass.  All  double  windows  to  be  hung  with  cast  iron 
weights  to  balance  with  braided  sash  cord. 

15.  Stairs  inside  to  raise  3 feet  to  milk  receiving  room  with 
7%  inch  raise  and  9 inch  breadth  steps. 

16.  Hardware.  All  outside  double  doors  to  have  head  and 
foot  bolts  and  good  thumb  latch  and  No.  42  Yale  cylinder  night 
latch. 

Interior  doors  to  have  mortised  knob  locks  with  long  escutcheon 
and  jet  knobs. 

All  sliding  windows  to  have  2 sash  lifts  and  Ives  sash  lock, 
Berlin  bronze  finish. 

17.  Painting.  Roof  to  have  two  coats  of  mineral  paint.  All 
outside  woodwork  to  have  two  good  coats  of  strictly  pure  lead  and 
oil  paint,  colors  to  suit. 

Inside,  with  exception  of  coal  room,  to  have  two  good  coats  of 
paint,  colors  to  be  selected. 


COST  OF  BUILDING. 


The  cost  of  this  building  will  vary  slightly,  according  to  the 
local  cost  of  material  in  the  particular  locality. 

We  submitted  these  plans  to  a contractor  who  figured  lumber 
from  the  following  prices : 

2x4,  2x6,  3x10 $17*50  per  1000. 

Sheeting i7-50  per  1000. 

1x4 22.00  per  1000. 

1x6 25.00  per  1000. 

No.  2 ship  lap  or  rustic 26.00  per  1000. 

Oregon  fir 35*oo  per  1000. 

Window  frames $1*25  to  $2.50  each. 

Doors  2 ft.  6 in.  x 6 ft.  8 in $3*50. 

2 ft.  8 in.  X 6 ft.  8 in $4.00. 

The  contractor’s  figure  on  this  building  was  $2000  to  $2200  fin- 
ished according  to  foregoing  plans  and  specifications,  $2000  being 
a safe  estimate  in  most  localities. 


78 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


MACHINERY  I«OR  CREAMERY. 

A great  many  firms  in  outlining  the  machinery  for  a plant  only 
give  a list  of  the  larger  and  more  important  parts  of  the  machinery 
and  never  mention  the  large  number  of  smaller  things  that  are  ab- 
solutely necessary  in  the  creamery.  Take  for  example  such  things  as 
salt,  oil  for  engine,  cylinder  and  cream  separator,  butter  color,  extra 
brushes,  parchment  wrapping  paper,  shipping  boxes  or  tubs,  radia- 
tors, pails,  etc 

The  following  is  a complete  list  of  everything  in  the  line  of 
machinery,  equipment  and  supplies  needed  to  begin  running  a 
creamery. 


LIST  OF  MACHINERY. 

I 20-H.  P.  horizontal  boiler,  complete  with  all  fixtures  including 
door,  grate  bars,  bearing  bars,  pop  valve,  steam  guage  and  syphon, 
water  column  with  glass  water  gauge,  3 guage  cocks,  feed,  check 
and  blow-off  valves,  injector  fitted  to  boiler,  whistle,  smoke  stack 
and  saddle,  guy  wires,  flue  cleaner,  poker  ,coal  scoop,  etc. 

400  fire  brick. 

I barrel  fire  clay. 

I 15-H.  P.  horizontal  engine  with  brass  oiler  and  Detroit  lubri- 
cator. 

I boiler  feed  pump  with  lubricator. 

I 4x6  steam  well  pump. 

.1  Separator  of  3,000  pound  capacity  per  hour. 

I Churn,  working  capacity  600  pounds  butter. 

I 20o-gallon  galvanized  skim  milk  vat. 

I 300-gallon  galvanized  butter  milk  vat. 

I 300-gallon  galvanized  water  tank. 

I 400-gallon  milk  receiving  vat. 

I Tvvin  cream  vat  (300  gallon,  ice  box  on  end). 

I 24-bottle  Ideal  tester. 

I 6oo-pound  five  beam  scale. 

, I 6o-gallon  weigh  can.  . , . > 


CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES. 


79 


1 Conductor  head  and  5-ft.  trough. 

, I Milk  strainer. 

i I Ideal  wash  sink,  No.  2. 

2 No.  I rotary  milk  pumps. 

I Whole  milk  heater. 

I Pasteurizer  for  skim  milk. 

I Ideal  skim  milk  weigher. 

I Noiseless  water  heater. 

I 14  inch  iron  head  mop  with  one  half  dozen  extra  rubbers. 

I 250-page  milk  ledger. 

4 dozen  weekly  milk  sheets. 

I Newton  computator. 

I dozen  Babcock  test  bottle  brushes. 

I Cream  acid  tester  complete. 

Yz  dozen  composite  test  jar  brushes. 

50  T.  T.  pint  sample  test  jars. 

I 18  inch  butter  tryer.  . 

I 8-ounce  graduate  for  color. 

^ dozen  common  floating  thermometers, 
i I Butter  packer.  ' •'  ' - 

I Dairy  or  New  York  style  ladle. 

I Factory  ladle. 

1 Butter  salting  scale. 

4 16x1  ii/ie  adjustable  drop  hangers. 

2 I ^Vie  shaft  collars. 

28  feet  PVie  inch  shafting. 

20  feet  inch  4 ply  steam  hose. 

30  feet  inch  3 ply  conducting  hose. 

I Belt  awl. 

50  feet  cut  rawhide  lacing. 

5 pounds  Italian  hemp  packing. 

I pound  each  piston  and  cylinder  packing. 

Necessary  connections  in  black  piping  for  boiler,  engine,  pumps, 
wash  sink,  pasteurizer,  vats,  etc.  Necessary  check  globe  and  angle 
valves  (Jenkins)  for  above. 

% Dozen  extra  seats  for  all  valves  used. 

Necessary  ells,  tees,  unions,  nipples,  reducers,  couplings. 


80 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


plugs,  etc.,  for  above.  ' 1 

1 Main  drive  wood  split  pulley. 

2 Wood  split  pulleys  for  rotary  pumps. 

I AVood  split  pulley  for  churn. 

I Separator  wood  split  pulley. 

1 Pulley  (wood  split)  for  starter  can.  ,, 

(Size  of  pulley  will  depend  upon  speed  of  engine). 

2 14-quart  pails. 

1 Starter  can. 

34  Dozen  gallon  butter  color. 
y2  Dozen  scrub  brushes. 
y2  Dozen  ox  fibre  brushes. 

% Dozen  A.  B.  C.  brushes. 

3 Gallons  sulphuric  acid  (commercial). 

2 Boxes  preservative  tablets. 

I S.  H.  dipper  (gallon). 

I S.  PI.  dipper  (1-2  gallon). 

I Barrel  butter  salt. 

I Butter  maker’s  set  of  tools  (including  saw,  hammer,  brace, 
and  set  bits,  wrenches,  dies,  etc.) 

^ dozen  extra  separator  ropes. 

I Elbow  strainer  for  churn. 

I Butter  printer. 

3000  Parchment  wrappers. 

100  K.  D.  54-pound  shipping  boxes. 

I Keg  floor  powder. 

I Spring  belt  punch. 

10  pounds  waste. 

5 Gallons  engine  oil. 

5 Gallons  cylinder  oil. 

5 Gallons  separator  oil. 

1 Refrigerator,  8x12  feet. 

2 Radiators  for  make  room. 

Now  in  a number  of  cases  we  have  not  specified  just  exactly 
the  particular  make  to  get,  for  in  such  cases  there  are  a number  of 
standard  varieties  that  are  equally  good.  Should  anyone  desire  par- 
ticular advice  on  any  particular  make  of  machinery,  we  will  be 


CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES. 


81 


pleased  to  help  if  they  write  iis  at  the  Dairy  Department  of  the 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

Considerable  money  can  be  saved  by  the  farmers  getting  to- 
gether and  deciding  how  many  milk  cans  they  will  need,  and  also 
the  sizes  they  want,  and  ordering  them  to  come  in  the  car  of 
machinery.  By  this  means  they  can  be  obtained  practically  freight 
free  as  the*  freight  on  the  car  of  machinery  will  be  a fixed  rate  any- 
way. 


COST  OF  MACHINERY. 

The  machinery  listed  above  can  be  laid  down  anywhere  in 
Montana  for  $2300.00,  and  it  will  cost  in  the  neighborhood  of  $200 
for  local  drayage,  installing  the  machinery  .and  doing  the  necessary 
piping.  So  that  $2500.00  is  ample  to  pay  for  a complete  list  of 
machinery,  including  the  freight  and  the  cost  of  installing  it.  Thus 
the  plant  complete  will  cost  for  building  $2000.00,  and  for  machinery 
$2500.00.  Making  the  total  cost  of  a 500  to  1000  cow  capacity 
creamery  $4500.00. 


Plans  pof^  Cheese  Factory 

RECOMMENDED  BY  TWE  DAIRY  DEPy^f^TMENf 


End  EucYATJoj^i 


/,Sa 


CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES. 


85 


CHEESE  FACTORY. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  requirements  and  location  of  a 
cheese  factory  as  was  said  of  a creamery,  with  the  exception  that 
it  does  not  require  as  many  cows  for  the  successful  operation  of  a 
cheese  factory  as  for  a creamery.  A very  successful  cheese  factory 
can  be  run  with  150  to  200  cows,  and  such  a plant  will  pay  just  as 
well,  and  possibly  a little  better,  than  a creamery  with  300  cows  at 
the  present  prices  of  . cheese.  With  the  same  number  of  cows  and 
at  the  prevailing  prices  there  is  more  money  in  making  cheese,  by 
20  cents  per  hundred  of  milk,  than  by  making  butter,  but  the  pa- 
tron has  to  wait  a little  longer  for  his  money  as  cheese  has  to  lie 
on  the  shelves  from  four  to  six  weeks  before  it  is  ready  for  market. 

Herewith  are  given  plans  of  an  up-to-date  cheese  factory. 


SPECIFICATIONS. 

The  main  building  shall  be  20  ft.  44ft.,  10  ft.  ceiling  and  Vs. 
pitch  roof  with  a boiler  room  on  the  side  12  ft.  x 20  ft. 

1.  Trenches.  Same  as  trenches  under  specifications  for 
creamery,  page  75. 

2.  Stone  Work.  Same  as  under  creamery  specifications,  page  75. 

3.  Cement  Work.  Only  the  boiler  room  will  have  concrete 
floor.  Cement  work  to  be  made  and  laid  as  under  creamery  speci- 
fications, page  75. 

4.  Carpenter  Work.  Same  as  under  creamery  specifications, 
page  75. 

5.  Sheeting.  Cover  all  outside  walls  as  well  as  roof  with  i inch 
surfaced  sheeting  well  nailed  to  every  bearing,  also  walls  and  ceil- 
ing of  curing  room  with  same  material.  On  inside,  except  curing 
room,  ceil  up  with  No.  2 1x6  M.  & D. 

6.  Window  Frames.  All  windows  to  contain  two  lights  24 
inch  X 30  inch.  All  the  rest  same  as  under  ‘‘Window  Frames,’" 
creamery  specifications,  page  76. 

7.  Roof  of  main  building  and  boiler  room  to  be  covered  with  26 


86 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


giiage  metal  roofing. 

8.  Paper.  Under  all  roofing  and  siding  cover  all  sheeting  with 
red  rosin  sized  building  paper  well  lapped  and  brought  up  carefully 
to  cornice  and  frames.  In  addition  the  inside  walls  and  ceiling  of 
curing  room  to  be  covered  on  top  of  i inch  sheeting  with  same 
paper  nailed  on  with  i inch  x 2 inch  strips,  16  inch  centers.  On 
top  of  these  strips  put  2 perpendicular  layers  of  same  kind  of 
building  paper  and  ceil  up  with  i inch  x 6 inch  M.  & D.,  thus 
making  two  dead  air  spaces. 

9.  Outside  Finish,  same  as  creamery  specifications,  page  76. 

10.  Ventilators,  same  as  creamery  specifications,  page  76. 

11.  Flooring,  1x4  vertical  grain  Oregon  fir  over  all  except  boil- 
er room.  There  will  be  a gutter  running  across  the  make  room  to 
which  the  floor  from  both  sides  will  slope. 

12.  Inside  Finish.  Same  as  creamery  specifications,  page  76. 

Doors.  All  doors  same  as  creamery  specifications,  page  76. 

13.  Sash.  Same  as  creamery  specifications,  page  76. 

14.  Platforms.  There  will  be  one  platform  in  the  make  room 
to  hold  the  weigh  scales  and  weigh  can  to  carry  800  pounds.  Plat- 
form to  be  4 ft.  X 8 ft  and  3 ft.  above  the  floor.  Steps  rising  to  it  to 
have  734  inch  raise  and  9 inch  tread.' 

Where  necessary  there  will  be  a platform  outside  of  boiler 
room  to  hold  cans  while  the  patrons  are  loading  up  the  whey.  Plat- 
form to  be  the  same  size  as  the  one  inside. 

MACHINERY  FOR  CHEESE  FACTORY. 

I 8-H_P.  upright  boiler  complete  with  fixtures  as  follows : stack, 
grate  bars,  pop  valve,  steam  guage  and  syphon,  water  column,  with 
glass  water  guage,  3 guage  cocks,  feed,  check,  and  blow-ofif  valves, 
injector  fitted  to  boiler,  whistle,  guy  wires,  flue  cleaner,  poker, 
coal  scoops,  etc. 

I Steam  well  pump. 

Necessary  iron  pipe  for  all  piping  inside  factory. 

Necessary  ells,  tees,  unions,  nipples,  reducers,  couplings, 
plugs,  etc.,  for  above. 

Necessary  valves  for  above  fittings  (Jenkins). 


CREAMERIES  AND  CHEESE  FACTORIES. 


I  6oo-poimd  5 beam  Fairbank  scales. 

I 240-poimd  S.  B.  scale  (Family). 

I 8o-gallon  weigh  can. 

I Conductor  head. 

6 Foot  conductor  trough. 

1 500-gallon  cheese  vat  (2  inch  gate). 

2 Curd  racks. 

I Combination  Cheddar  and  Y.  A.  cheese  pre.‘:.=>. 
I Harris  curd  mill. 

12  14^4  inch  seamless  hoops. 

6 Y.  A.  seamless  hoops. 

I 24-bottle  Facile  tester. 

I 15-barrel  steel  tank. 

I Curd  pail. 

I 14-quart  pail. 

34  dozen  floor  scrub  brushes. 

3 Jorsey  brushes. 

500  yards  1434  cheese  bandage. 

500  yards  Y.  A.  cheese  bandage. 

4 Gallons  Hansen  rennet. 

I Gallon  cheese  color. 

I Gallon  acid. 

I Box  cor.  sub.  tablets. 

I Allens  pay  roll. 

I S.  and  S.  record. 

1 Dozen  rec.  sheets. 

2 Dozen  pint  T.  T.  bottles. 

I 17-barrel  steel  tank. 

I 8x20  Hor.  curd  knife. 

I 14x20  Perp.  curd  knife. 

I L.  H.  Dipper  (34  gallon). 

I S.  H.  Dipper  (i  gallon). 

I Whey  strainer  for  cheese  vat. 

I Curd  scoop. 

I 16-ounce  graduate. 

I Stirring  knife. 

I Gram  measure. 


88 


MONTANA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


I Cheese  knife  for  hoop.  -i  : ■ 

I Dating  stencil,  paste  and  brush. 

I Floor  mop  14  inch  with';^  dozen  extra  rubbers. 

6 Floating  thermometers. 

I Barrel  cheese  salt. 

I 4x8  Moore  pump.  ? 

I Wash  sink,  galvanized. 

I Noiseless  heater. 

I Dozen  brushes. 

I M.  13  1-2  cloth  circles. 

I M.  6 1-2  cloth  circles. 

TOTAL  COST  OF  CHEESE  FACTORY. 

The  same  prices  have  been  figured  on  lumber  for  the  cheese 
factory  as  for  the  creamery.  Such  a building  constructed  as  per 
plans  and  specifications  here  given  can  be  built  for  $1500. 

A complete  outfit  of  the  very  best  cheese  factory  machinery,  for 
such  a plant,  can  be  laid  down  in-  Montana,  and  placed  in  shape  in 
the  factory  ready  to  run  for  $800.  This  price  includes  actual  cost 
of  machinery,  freight  from  Minneapolis  or  St.  Paul  to  Montana,  and 
the  cost  of  installing  said  machinery  in  factory.  Thus  the  factory 
complete  can  be  built  for  $2300.  This  price  may  vary  $100  one  way 
or  the  other  according  to  the  local  price  of  material. 

These  plans  and  specifications  are  given  with  the  hope  that 
they  may  be  of  use  to  those  who  are  thinking  of  building,  and  if 
any  one  is  desirous  of  using  these  plans,  blue  prints  may  be  had 
by  applying  to  the  Dairy  Department  of  the  Experiment  Station, 
Bozeman,  Montana. 

As  far  as  possible,  any  other  help  towards  the  building  and 
equipping  of  either  plant  will  be  cheerfully  given. 


